The explosion of the global financial crisis in 2007-08 reignited the urgency to reflect on the origins and causes of financial collapses. As the above events kick-started an economic meltdown that is still ongoing, comparisons with the Great Crash of 1929 started to abound. In particular, the externalities that a broad spectrum of societal groups had to bear as a consequence of various banking failures highlighted the necessity of a more inclusive and balanced regulation of firms whose activities impact on a wide range of stakeholders.The thesis is centred on the proposal of a paradigm, the “enlightened sovereign control”, that provides a theoretical, institutional and substantive framework as a response to the legal issues analysed in the thesis. These stem primarily from the analysis of two sequences of events (the 2001-03 wave of “accounting frauds” and the 2007-08 global crisis) which represent the background upon which modern financial scandals are explained. This is done by highlighting a number of common denominators emerging from the case studies (Enron and Parmalat, Northern Rock and Lehman Brothers) which caused financial instability and scandals. The research is grounded on the initial recognition of theoretical themes in the field of corporate and financial law, which eventually link with the more practical events examined. This parallel enquiry leads to the investigation of two heavily interrelated spheres of law and finally highlights more practical legal issues that emerge from the analysis.Through this multifaceted approach, the thesis contends that the occurrence of financial crises during the last decade is essentially rooted in two main problems: a corporate governance one, represented by the lack of effective control systems within large public firms; and a corporate finance one identified with the excesses of financial innovation and related abuses of capital market finance. Research conducted in this thesis ultimately seeks to contribute to current debates in the areas of corporate and financial law, through the proposals of the “enlightened sovereign control” paradigm.

Cette thèse, sous forme de trois articles, tente d’expliquer le déclin des bourses organisées au profit de nouvelles plateformes de transaction, à la lumière des récents changements de gouvernance et réglementaires. Les deux premiers articles évaluent l’influence de quatre types d’actionnariat (flottant, courtiers, investisseurs financiers et actionnaires stratégiques) sur la performance de l’entreprise. Il existe une corrélation positive de la performance avec l’actionnariat institutionnel,et négative avec le flottant et avec les investisseurs stratégiques. Le deuxième article –six études de cas– valide ces résultats. L’analyse plus détaillée des actionnaires stratégiques montre que ceux-ci créent de la valeur quand ils sont fondateurs; la détruisent quand ils sont des dirigeants salariés; et augmentent la volatilité des performances de l’entreprise dans les cas de prise de contrôle avortée par un concurrent.Le troisième article analyse l’effet conjugué des changements réglementaires et technologiques. A travers une approche par comparaisons de moyennes, il apparait que les marchés exposés à la déréglementation souffrent plus de la concurrence des plateformes électroniques que les autres bourses.Cette thèse introduit deux nouveaux concepts: le «principal quasi-agent» (un actionnaire qui réduit la valeur de son investissement en raison de ses conflits d’intérêt) et l’«effet adjuvant» (ou comment la réglementation démultiplie les effets concurrentiels permis par les avancées technologiques). / This dissertation consists of three articles, examining the performance of demutualized securities exchanges from 2000 to 2011, in view of changes in governance and regulation. The first part is an empirical study of the influence of each type of shareholder (financial investor, broker, strategic or widely-held shares). The results show that fragmented owner ship is correlated with lower performance and investment managers’ presence with higher performance; strategic investors are on balance detrimental to shareholder value. The second article looks at the same exchanges individually, through case studies. The findings of the first article are validated.However,a closer look at strategic investors shows three outcomes : when they consist of founders, they increase shareholder value; when they are employed managers,they decrease it; and when the strategic investor is a competitor, the target company’s performance becomes more volatile. The third article looks at the combination of technology and regulation.Through mean comparisons and a difference-in-differences approach, this section shows that recent market deregulation has allowed high-tech start-ups to challenge the dominance of the established exchanges, just like previous coincidences of regulatory and technological change resulted in significant market up heavals: the disappearance of London’s jobbers following Big Bang and the Eurocurrency market displacing New York as a major center for dollar borrowing and lending. This dissertation introduces two new concepts: “quasi-agent principals”(shareholders who destroy value in their investment as a result of their conflicts of interest) and the “adjuvant effect” (when the combined effect of regulation and technology is a multiple of the effects of each).

This Diploma Thesis describes foreign mortgage covered bonds which can be issued by Czech banks under English law on foreign regulated markets after the amendment to the Czech Act No. 190/2004 Coll., the Bonds Act, as amended took effect in 2012. The Diploma Thesis outlines basic characteristics of foreign mortgage covered bonds, lists reasons for their issuance, and compares them with certain alternative sources of funding for banks. The Diploma Thesis describes the structure of programme and issuance documentation used in the international capital markets. The author points out certain regulatory deficiencies existing under Czech law and proposes amendments in support of the international investment attractiveness of foreign mortgage covered bonds of Czech banks. The Diploma Thesis also analyses selected issuances of foreign mortgage covered bonds by Czech banks.

La mondialisation des échanges, générant un accroissement des volumes de transactions financières, a été accompagnée par une mondialisation des activités criminelles. Les techniques de blanchiment se sont adaptées à cette réalité économique. La lutte anti-blanchiment est intrinsèquement un sujet complexe qui a mobilisé une volonté d’architecture ouverte entre les acteurs publics et une interdépendance entre les régulateurs et les institutions financières. Son objectif est de viser l’action des organisations criminelles transnationales qui ont su tirer profit de la congruence entre la sophistication financière et l’ère du numérique. La réglementation de ces dernières années, concernant la lutte anti-blanchiment d’argent et lutte contre le financement du terrorisme, a mis en relief l’émergence du droit souple avec, parallèlement, un changement paradigmatique pour les institutions financières qui se retrouvent désormais à appliquer des normes restrictives émanant du législateur et d’appliquer des normes de contrainte, ou incitatives, provenant de différentes autorités de régulation, générant parfois une perception de superposition réglementaire. Insérées dans le dispositif mondial de lutte anti blanchiment, les institutions financières doivent s’adapter cette inflation réglementaire qui persiste depuis plusieurs années. Ce changement de texture normative se caractérise par une combinaison de ces différents droits dont le mouvement ne cesse de se prolonger avec le droit de la régulation bancaire et financière. Ce droit de la régulation bancaire et financière invite les institutions financières à adopter une certaine élasticité dans la mise en place des dispositifs de conformité permettant la mise en oeuvre d’outils systémiques face à une complexité endémique de la délinquance financière. La mondialisation de la criminalité financière appelle à la nécessité de la mondialisation du droit via un système de contrôle adapté de la part des acteurs de la finance. Dans ce contexte, le juriste en conformité voit ses prérogatives revisitées et sa perception bouleversée par ce mouvement de plaque tectonique réglementaire. / Globalization of trade and financial transactions have been followed by globalization of financial crime.Money laundering techniques have converged in light of this economic reality. Anti-Money laundering is considered like a complex topic wich includes interaction between regulator bodies and financial institutions. It aims to counter international criminal transactions taking advantage of financial innovation and digital evolution. The anti-money laundering regulation of recents years highlights soft law wich results new normative paradigm producing regulatory overlay.Inserted in anti-money laundering worldwide program, financial institutions have to deal with regulatory inflation that has lasted for several years. This normative mutation is defined by different laws combination whose movement continues to grow with banking and financial regulatory. This banking and financial regulatory requires financial institutions to put in place a flexibility compliance program with systemic tools to cope with white-collar complexity environment. Financial crime globalization needs globalization law and regulation wich uses financial institutions monitoring system. In this context, the compliance lawyer must adapt his perception and mission with respect to tectonic plate regulation movement.

Magister Legum - LLM / This paper analyses how the Zimbabwean economic history has led to the perception and attitude of the population towards the financial industry. It has been blighted by extremes to the extent that in 2008 the Zimbabwe economy had one of the highest hyperinflation rate in the world.1 Pettinger sums up the hyperinflation journey of Zimbabwe as having begun in the 1990s shortly after the disastrous land reform.2 This is where private farms were grabbed from landowners and re-allocated to mostly peasant farmers who had no technical know-how in farming. It was also a time when the country was involved in an unbudgeted and unsolicited second Congo civil war necessitating that the Government increase salaries to cater for soldiers and other officials assigned to the Congo.3 Earlier on the government had buckled under pressure from former war liberators (war veterans) and paid out unbudgeted bonuses.4

SAMMANFATTNINGAktieägaravtal, det vill säga avtal mellan ägare i ett aktiebolag som reglerar aktiebolagets struktur och hur verksamheten ska styras, är vanligt förekommande i näringslivet. Aktieägaravtalet kan betraktas som ett komplement till bolagsordningen, som är aktiebolagets grundläggande dokument. Aktieägaravtal förekommer i många former och skepnader. Det står aktieägarna i princip fritt att avtala om vad som helst som rör bolaget och deras ägande. En annan sak är att ett aktieägaravtal aldrig i frånvaro av lagstöd kan få aktiebolagsrättsliga verkningar. Det är en konsekvens av den aktiebolagsrättsliga separationsprincipen. På motsvarande sätt innebär den avtalsrättsliga separationsprincipen att avtalet inte är bindande för tredje man samt att aktiebolagsrätten inte åstadkommer någon verkan på aktieägaravtalet. Avtalet gäller mellan parterna. I aktieägaravtal är det mycket vanligt med så kallade överlåtelse- och beslutsbindningar. Överlåtelsebindningar reglerar förutsättningarna för hur avtalsparterna får överlåta sina aktier. Beslutsbindningar reglerar det sätt på vilket beslut i till exempel bolagsstämman eller styrelsen ska fattas, vilka majoritetskrav som ska gälla, om det föreligger vetorätt och så vidare. I den här uppsatsen undersöker jag beslutsbindningar i aktieägaravtal som ingås av aktieägare i banker och värdepappersbolag. Utgångspunkten är att aktieägaravtal, genom att reglera beslutsfattandet, kan användas som ett viktigt bolagsstyrningsinstrument för aktieägarna. Banker och värdepappersbolag är emellertid föremål för omfattande, näringsrättslig reglering vars ändamål kan komma i konflikt med ändamålen bakom den avtalsfrihet som ligger till grund för aktieägarnas fri- och rättighet att ingå aktieägaravtal. Uppsatsen bygger på en traditionell rättsvetenskaplig metod. Det övergripande syftet med ämnesvalet är att berika förståelsen för aktieägaravtal genom att tillföra ett kapitalmarknadsrättsligt perspektiv på användningen av sådana avtal i just banker och värdepappersbolag. / Shareholder agreements are contractual arrangements among shareholders in a limited liability company that describe the structure of the company and how it should be operated.  The shareholder agreement can be seen as a supplement to the articles of association, the main constitutional document in the company.  Shareholder agreements exist in a variety of formats. The shareholders are free to regulate whatever they prefer regarding the company and their ownership. Whereas an agreement creates obligations for the parties involved, the agreement can never have company law effects unless there is explicit legal support for this. This is the essence of the company law separation principle. Correspondingly, company law can never have any effect on the contractual obligations between the shareholders that are party to an agreement. This is commonly referred to as the contractual separation principle.  It is common for shareholder agreements to contain transfer obligations and decision obligations. Transfer obligations regulate the conditions under which ownership of shares can be transferred. Decision obligations regulate how decisions are made in general meetings, the board of directors and so on. This thesis examines decision obligations in shareholder agreements between shareholders in banks and investment firms. The starting point is that shareholder agreements, by regulating decision-making, can be used as an important corporate governance tool for the shareholders. Banks and investment firms are subject to a comprehensive framework of capital markets regulations. Capital markets regulations have goals and objectives that may conflict with the shareholders’ fundamental freedom of contract, which is the base for their right to enter into shareholder agreements. The thesis builds on the method of traditional jurisprudence. The overall objective of the thesis is to enrich the understanding of shareholder agreements by applying a capital markets law perspective on the use of such agreements in banks and investment firms.

Yes / The relationship between banks and society in UK remains fragile more than 10 years after the financial crisis. The level of public mistrust, though lower than in the aftermath of the crisis, still re-mains at unsatisfactory levels especially as scandals continue to plague the sector. This raises the question of the effectiveness of reforms adopted in UK during the past 10 years to improve the public oversight of banks and change their culture. The reforms resulted in a significant expansion of the scope of financial regulation through the adoption of large numbers of new rules with binding effect on banks. In addition, new supervisory bodies were created to more closely monitor bank activities. This paper reviews the effects of the reforms on bank culture and concludes that expanded regulation and compulsory norms brought about mixed results and had only moderate effect on re-pairing the relationship between banks and UK society. The paper argues that more significant cultural change could come only from the banks themselves and therefore, going forward, the scope of compulsory norms should be reduced. The paper contributes to the ongoing dialogue between industry experts, policy makers and lawyers about the optimum levels of financial regulation especially in light of recent calls for rolling back parts of public interventions in the financial sector.

O presente estudo tem dois objetivos. O primeiro (1) é substantivo: contribuir com o debate sobre globalização financeira, ajudando a nele incorporar uma dimensão que parecia um pouco fora de foco em diversas discussões a dimensão jurídico-institucional empírica. O segundo (2) é metodológico, e não se relaciona diretamente com o objeto da pesquisa: ajudar a incorporar ao estudo do direito no Brasil a utilização de certas técnicas empíricas que permitiriam o exercício mais freqüente do que se será chamado aqui de ceticismo esclarecido pela empiria o salutar questionamento de afirmações doutrinais peremptórias com o auxílio de evidência empírica. Em relação ao objetivo (1), apresenta-se a seguinte tese. A globalização financeira é produto de diversos processos heterogêneos de cooperação internacional, políticas governamentais, reformas legislativas e estratégias políticas. Tais processos têm determinantes diversos, e objetivos variados, não apenas liberalização. De fato, mera liberalização unilateral não daria suporte suficiente ao aumento de fluxos financeiros transfronteiriços a globalização só pôde e só pode ocorrer em vista da criação de uma diversidade de estruturas internacionais, incluídas aí as bilaterais, plurilaterais e multilaterais. Estas resultaram em uma densa malha jurídico-institucional que, para ser criada, demandou mudanças por diversas vezes dolorosas e custosas aos países que as implantaram, assim como grandes esforços de negociação. Somente porque existe essa malha jurídica, cuja origem é a atividade política dos governos nacionais, é que investidores e empresas financeiras puderam e podem cruzar fronteiras, deter ativos no estrangeiro, e fazê-los circular em nível global. A globalização é resultado, não da abdicação e retração dos Estados, mas do ativo engajamento de seus governos na persecução de objetivos de política pública. Trata-se, portanto, de uma reação a interpretações concorrentes, segundo as quais a globalização financeira estaria sendo causada pela retração dos Estados Nacionais, que estariam se retirando da atividade regulatória, de forma geral, e da regulação das finanças, de formas mais específicas. A primeira parte consiste de dois capítulos discutindo os arranjos jurídico-institucionais que geraram a globalização financeira. A metodologia utilizada foi primordialmente qualitativa. Realizaram-se reconstruções institucionais comparadas, discutindo a evolução de certos arranjos de governança do sistema financeiro. Dois conjuntos de análises de casos foram realizados: (a) uma sobre a formação comparada de Sistemas Financeiros Nacionais, e (b) outra sobre processos comparados de integração financeira. A segunda parte consiste de um capítulo discutindo correlações entre indicadores econômicos e processos de globalização financeira. Aplicaram-se métodos econométricos sobre uma grande base de dados reunida e criada exclusivamente para esta pesquisa. / This study has two objectives. The first (1) is substantive: to contribute to the debate on globalization by helping to incorporate to it a dimension that has been somewhat left aside in many discussions the legal-institutional dimension. The second (2) is methodological, and not directly related to the subject of research: to help incorporating to the study of law in Brazil the use of certain empirical techniques that allow the exercise of what can be called a skepticism enlightened by the empiricism - the healthy questioning of doctrinal statements with the aid of empirical evidence. In relation of (1), the following thesis is advanced. Financial globalization is the product of several heterogeneous processes of international cooperation, government policies, legislative reforms and legal strategies. These processes have several determinants, and varied objectives, not just liberalization. In fact, a mere unilateral liberalization process would not give enough support to increase cross-border financial flows - globalization could only and may only occur in view of a diversity of international structures, including bilateral, plurilateral and multilateral agreements. These resulted in a dense mesh of legal and institutional structures, that to be created, demanded changes several times painful and costly to the countries that have implemented, as well as major efforts to negotiate. Only because of such legal tissue, whose origin is the political activity of national governments, is that investors and financial institutions could and can cross borders, holding assets abroad, and circulate them globally. Globalization is the result, not the abdication of the retraction, but the active engagement of governments in their pursuit of public policy objectives. The thesis is therefore a reaction to competing interpretations, under which financial globalization was being caused by the retraction of nation states, they were withdrawing from regulatory activity, in general, and regulation of finance, more specific forms. The first part consists of two chapters discussing the legal and institutional arrangements that led to financial globalization. The methodology was primarily qualitative. There were institutional compared reconstructions, discussing the evolution of certain governance arrangements of the financial system. Two sets of case studies were conducted: (a) training on a comparison of national financial systems, and (b) the other on the comparative analysis of financial integration. The second part consists of a chapter discussing correlations between economic indicators and processes of financial globalization. Were applied econometric methods on a large database collected and created exclusively for this research.

Les défis auxquels sont confrontés les différents secteurs de l’économie, répondent à l'évolution et à la spécialisation des consommateurs et des producteurs, dont les besoins sont de plus en plus complexes. À cet égard, au cours des 5 dernières années, les marchés de l'électricité ont subi un processus évolutif qui vise à répondre aux besoins de tous les intervenants dans des scénarios de développement durable.Aussi les agents impliqués dans les marchés de l'électricité, exposés à des risques opérationnels, juridiques, éthiques, financiers, entre autres, doivent‐ils se spécialiser pour s'approprier notamment de nouvelles technologies. Cette recherche porte principalement sur l'étude du risque financier tout à s'attachant à prendre en compte les nombreuses spécificités des marchés de l'électricité dans le but d'assurer le bon fonctionnement du marché et de ses participants.Dans les développements antérieurs, certains modèles se sont concentrés sur les phénomènes de pannes de courant électrique, d'instabilité du réseau, de variations de puissance, de réseaux intelligents, entre autres. D'autres études ont abordé la question de la prédiction de variables comme le prix et la stratégie d'entreprise, dans le but d'accroître les profits des participants. Ce projet de thèse propose un modèle financier complexe, qui se traduit par le calcul d'un équilibre de marché à partir des conditions initiales et des contraintes de risque. En utilisant la théorie des jeux, nous expliquons l'instabilité de l’équilibre. Nous montrons, en dépit de la complexité, qu'il est possible de trouver un scénario optimal en termes de rentabilité pour le système et les agents.Ce travail est structuré de la façon suivante. Dans le premier chapitre, une revue des études antérieures est présentée afin d’établir le contexte de la recherche. Le chapitre 2 décrit le marché de l'électricité colombienne avec ses particularités. Dans le chapitre 3, les indicateurs de risque (KRI) sont définis. Ils constitueront une partie fondamentale du modèle complet présenté dans le chapitre 4. Enfin, le chapitre 5, d'une part, présente les résultats obtenus et, d'autre part, discute de différentes voies d'approfondissement. / The challenges faced by different sectors of the economy, respond to the evolution and specialization of consumers and producers, where the needs are becoming more complex. In this sense, during the last 5 years the electricity markets have undergone an evolutionary pro- cess that aims to meet the needs of all stakeholders in the midst of sustainability scenarios.Thus, the agents involved in the electricity market, present a num- ber of exhibitions of operational nature, legal, ethical, financial, among others, which require a specialization allowing the entry of new tech- nologies. This research project focuses on the study of financial risk, which despite being so specific, consider many elements with the aim of ensuring the functioning of the market and its participants.In previous studies, some models have concentrated on the in- vestigation of blackouts phenomena, the stability of the network, the dynamic power system, and Smart grids, among others. Mean- while other investigations have addressed the problem of forecasting different variables like the spot price and corporate strategy, with the aim of increasing the profitability of the participants. Now, this project presents the proposal of a complex financial model, which results in calculating a market equilibrium considering initial condi- tions and risk constraints. Using game theory it demonstrates equi- librium instability and that through complexity it is possible to find an optimal scenario in terms of profitability for the system and the agents.In chapter 1 it carried out a review of previous studies in order to justify the investigation, then Chapter 2 includes a description of the Colombian electricity market, with different specifications. In chap- ter 3 the KRI are defined, and they will be integrated in Chapter 4 as a fundamental part of the comprehensive model. Finally, Chapter 5 includes the results of the study ending with some possible further studies and additional considerations.

巴塞爾資本協定是一個非強制性的國際銀行監管制度，若世界各國均遵照此協定，能夠提升各國金融體系的穩定性，進而降低國內與國際金融危機發生的可能性。然而，在其非強制性的本質下，有些國家的實行程度相當高，但有些國家實行程度相當低，本論文的核心問題在於理解世界各國實行巴塞爾資本協定的差異。本論文採用國際政治經濟理論中的理性選擇理論，以一個簡單的國際與國內政治壓力模型，描繪出各國政府試圖降低銀行監管規範所帶來的國際與國內政治成本總和，以求得最適化的金融監管規範。 根據此模型的內涵，本論文假設：若一個國家是個經濟強權、與全球經濟市場的互賴程度低，且擁有一個弱勢且較無法隔絕國內政治因素的行政體系時，該國的巴塞爾資本協定通常較低；若一個國家並非為經濟強權、與全球經濟市場的互賴程度高，且擁有一個強勢且較能隔絕國內政治因素的行政體系時，該國能實行較高程度的巴塞爾資本協定；若一個國家是個經濟強權、與全球經濟市場的互賴程度低，且擁有一個強勢且較能隔絕國內政治因素的行政體系時，該國較不受到政治壓力的影響，因此能夠自行決定巴塞爾資本協定的實行程度；若一個國家並非為經濟強權、與全球經濟市場的互賴程度高，且擁有一個弱勢且較無法隔絕國內政治因素的行政體系時，該國將部分實行巴塞爾資本協定，且將帶來相同程度的國際與國內政治壓力，以最小化政治壓力之總和。 在實證分析部分，我採用並分析了涵蓋91個國家，從1973至2005年的時間序列資料，以及一份涵蓋150個國家的問卷資料，以進行量化迴歸分析。此外，我針對台灣與中國大陸銀行監管制度的變遷，進行兩國的個案研究與比較，其資料包括第一手的訪談，以及第二手的統計、學術研究、媒體報導、與專家評論等資料。量化與兩個個案的實證結果支持了本論文的核心論點。 / This dissertation seeks to answer the question of why some countries comply with high level of Basel Accords while others ignore this global governance regime. It adopts a rational theory of international political economy that treats a government’s bank regulation preference as a result of the interaction between international and domestic political costs. The theoretical model shows that if a country is more economically powerful (weak) or less (more) economically interdependent on global markets, and has a weaker (stronger) executive branch that is unable (able) to shield itself from domestic political factors, it is more likely to realize lower (higher) level of Basel Accords. If a country is powerful or not economically interdependent on global markets, and has a strong executive branch, it has more leeway to decide the level of bank regulation. If a country is weak or economically interdependent on global markets, and has a weak executive branch, an equilibrium level of bank regulation will cause equal international and domestic political costs that minimize the aggregate pressure. For quantitative tests, I collect time-series data covering 91 countries from 1973 to 2005, as well as a cross-national survey dataset covering more than 150 countries. In addition, I conduct two in-depth case studies of China's and Taiwan's changes of bank regulations since 1980, which rely on first hand interviews and second hand data. Both quantitative and qualitative results support political pressure hypotheses.