The topic of this thesis is Genocide in Rwanda which occurred in 1994 and its reflection in Czech press during that time. The aim is to find out in what way the chosen press reported about the genocide itself, the violence in 1994 that preceded it and events that ensued. The findings are compared mutually. Specifically, it's about Mladá fronta Dnes and Lidové noviny that were chosen to represent right sided press. Rudé právo, a newspaper closer to left side of political spectrum, and weekly prints named Respekt and Reflex all representing non-daily print. The thesis is ment as a probe closely investigating Czech media and painting general picture of how the media reported about the conflict in Rwanda. The thesis is divided into two parts, the theoretical and investigative part, the former describing the general characteristics of the country and the historical causes of the tension between the two ethnic groups, events that preceded the genocide and last but not least the course of events that unfolded afterwards during the same year while the latter analyzes the selected Czech prints.

Des auteurs africains subsahariens francophones de l’opération « Rwanda : écrire par devoir de mémoire », au réalisateur haïtien Raoul Peck, en passant par nombre d’auteurs belges ou québécois, le génocide des Tutsi du Rwanda est devenu, en une quinzaine d’années, un véritable objet de création littéraire et cinématographique, et le centre d’œuvres qui construisent, perpétuent mais aussi questionnent sans fin sa mémoire. En effet, souvent considéré comme le premier génocide « télévisé », une mémoire médiatique du génocide de 1994 préexiste à ce travail de l’écriture et a contribué à « informer » les cadres collectifs de sa représentation, une représentation souvent tronquée et partielle. Il s’agit donc de questionner, d’un point de vue éthique et esthétique, les rapports à la construction et à la transmission de la mémoire que peuvent entretenir la littérature et les images médiatiques. Il s’agit surtout de produire une théorie littéraire de la transmission résolument contemporaine, de mettre à jour une poétique de la transmission propre à la littérature et à ses enjeux dans notre monde de l’image, en prenant le génocide des Tutsi au Rwanda comme champ d’analyse emblématique. Cette théorie met à jour deux concepts majeurs : la médiation et la passation de la mémoire dans leurs enjeux éthiques, esthétiques et proprement stylistiques. C’est ainsi en se faisant agent de la traversée de l’espace, du temps, des frontières entre auteur et lecteur, autrui et moi, visible et invisible, conscience et inconscient, c’est-à-dire passeur, que le médiateur-scripteur parachève l’entreprise de transmission et redonne à la littérature sa place de choix dans la société contemporaine. / For at least the last fifteen years, the Tutsi genocide which happened in Rwanda triggered a wide array of literary and cinematographic works, ranging from the francophone African Sub-Saharan writers who took part in the initiative “Rwanda: writing out of the duty of remembrance” to the Haitian director Raoul Peck and numerous authors from Belgium and Quebec. All these works construct, transmit and also endlessly challenge the memory of the genocide. Indeed, the genocide in Rwanda being often considered as the first “TV live” genocide, the media-staged memory of the 1994 events comes before the literary work and has greatly impacted the collective framing of its – often biased and partial – depiction. Subsequently it matters to question, from an ethical and aesthetical point of view, the dynamics of memory construction and transmission which are at stake between literature and images from the media. More importantly, it matters to define a contemporary literary theory of transmission that particularly addresses the poetics of literary transmission at the age of the media ineluctability: the case of the Tutsi genocide in Rwanda will help articulate this theory. The latter relies on two major concepts: the mediation and the passation of memory from ethical, aesthetic and stylistic perspectives. By building a bridge crossing space and time, beyond the frontier between authorship and readership, the other and I, the visible and the invisible, consciousness and unconsciousness, by becoming a passeur, the mediator and scriptwriter brings his contribution to the project of transmission and associates literature with a mission of its own in the throes of current issues.

Thesis advisor: David Rasmussen / This thesis begins by analyzing three different philosophies on human rights. It looks to the foundations of these theories, but focuses primarily on the obligations that each system creates. It evaluates cosmopolitanism and two different institutionalist arguments, eventually settling on a tiered system of international responsibility as the strongest and most practical conception of rights. The second chapter of the thesis discusses the role of the International Criminal Court as a part of this tiered system, and as a means to promote human rights across the globe. This section evaluates the court by considering its historical foundations, its goals and responsibilities, and its actions over the past ten years. It concludes by providing recommendations for the future of the court. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2013. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: College Honors Program.

O Genocídio Armênio (1914-1916), reconhecido por alguns estudiosos como o protótipo do genocídio moderno, é negado até hoje pelo governo turco, apesar dos protestos da comunidade armênia dispersa em todo o mundo. Oficialmente, a Turquia reconhece que ocorreram muitas mortes, mas nega a intenção estatal do ato genocida. Na mesma época ou até mesmo um pouco antes, os gregos a outra grande minoria cristã do Império Otomano também sofreram massacres e perseguições, com um saldo de centenas de milhares de mortos, vivenciando situações semelhantes às sofridas pelos armênios. Sob este mesmo viés, movimentos nacionalistas e imperialistas europeus levaram à perda significativa de territórios do Império Otomano, forçando, em consequência, a mobilização de centenas de milhares de muçulmanos que, fugindo do domínio cristão, instalaram-se na Anatólia, fortalecendo as questões etno-religiosas. Hoje, essas histórias seguem sendo motivo de questionamento, ainda que esquecidas ou silenciadas por alguns grupos. O objetivo deste estudo é contribuir para a elucidação desta polêmica, reunindo um conjunto de informações que permita uma compreensão mais ampla do assunto. Com base na historiografia especializada no tema, procuramos inventariar e comparar as versões de diversos autores, cujos discursos são complementares ou mesmo antagônicos, bem como a posição oficial do governo turco, postada no site do Ministério das Relações Internacionais da Turquia. Somam-se aqui os testemunhos de sobreviventes e as declarações de diplomatas e missionários estrangeiros que presenciaram os acontecimentos. / The Armenian Genocide (1914-1916), recognized by some scholars as the prototipe of the modern genocide, is denied by the turkish government even today, despite the protests of the armenian community around the world. Officially, Turkey recognizes that many people died in the period, but denies the genocidal intent. At the same time or little before. The greeks the other major minority of the Ottoman Empire also suffered with massacres and persecutions, resulting in hundreds of thousands dead, experiencing similar situations as those suffered by the Armenians. In the same period, nationalist and imperialist movements led to great losses of territory of the Ottoman Empire, forcing, as a result, the mobilization of hundreds of thousands of muslims, escaping from the Christian rule, who settled at Anatólia, stressing the etno-religious conflicts. Today, those stories are still a reason to argue, even if forgotten or silenced by some groups. The intention of this work is help on the elucidation of the polemica, collecting a set of informations that may allow a wider understanding of the subject. Using the specialized historiography, we tried to catalogue and compare the many opinions of authors, whose speeches are complementary or even opposing, as well as the official version of the Turkish government, posted at the Ministery of Foreign Affairs website. Here is added the voices of the survivors and the statements of foreign missionaries and diplomats, who witnessed the events.

Penser l’écriture par rapport à l’histoire c’est mettre en relation deux moments importants de l’activité. On peut considérer que ce qui est écrit, c’est ce qui reste, c’est-à-dire jugé digne d’être transmis. Il en va ainsi des événements historiques qui grâce à l’écriture sont transmis de génération en génération. L’écriture est ainsi une trace, une mémoire de l’histoire. Toutefois, l’histoire semble s’opposer à l’écriture littéraire. Car il est généralement admis qu’on ne trouve guère dans les œuvres littéraires que ce qui s´oppose à la réalité et ce point de vue relèverait de l’imaginaire voire de la simulation. Cette approche du texte littéraire se trouve désormais quelque peu ébranlée, si l’on intègre les témoignages, les biographies, notamment les témoignages de survivants de génocide et même ceux des « assassins ».Cette question est d’autant plus présente que ces dernières décennies on assiste à l’émergence dans le débat critique d’une question, que la poétique n’avait jamais explicitée en tant que telle : celle des frontières de la fiction. Toutes choses qui ont permis de repenser la poétique de l’œuvre littéraire fondée comme l’indique les organisateurs d’un colloque en ligne « sur une prescription de distanciation et de subordination du réel concret ou factuel au profit de la fiction ». Il apparaît donc que c’est dans le déploiement même du texte que la difficulté à définir le statut du texte se dévoile dans toute sa complexité. Loin des approches structuralistes du milieu du XXe siècle qui concevaient encore le texte comme un système de relations clos sur lui-même, la critique contemporaine pense le texte dans son rapport avec le hors texte. Ainsi, on redécouvre la nécessité non seulement d’inclure les sciences humaines dans le travail critique mais aussi de lire les faits historiques et sociologiques à partir du texte littéraire. Comment concilier histoire et écriture ?Ce questionnement général s’applique également à toutes les littératures, notamment aux textes sur le génocide rwandais. Ici se pose identiquement la question de la mise en écriture d’une page tragique de l’Histoire. Comment dire sans totalement sublimer le factuel ? Le langage est-il apte à saisir les horreurs de ce génocide, comment écrire ? Telles sont en quelques mots les questions que pose cette littérature. Dans cette perspective Jean Hatzfeld se présente comme enquêteur qui transmet les résultats d’une profonde expérience sur le génocide du Rwanda. Son texte Une Saison de machettes : La parole des assassins, le deuxième récit d’une trilogie consacrée au génocide Rwandais, révèle un processus de reconstitution des traces de l’histoire à travers le témoignage presque naturel de Hutus ayant participés aux massacre des Tutsi. La particularité de ce texte est la mise en discours du récit des bourreaux. C’est-à-dire ceux-là qui ont pleinement participé aux massacres humains en tant qu’acteurs, meneurs de troupes. Il s’agit pour l’auteur de faire parler des personnes qui ont fait l’expérience du pouvoir de vie ou de mort sur leur semblable. Ici, l’homme est d’abord perçu selon la formule de Thomas Hobbes comme un ‘‘loup pour l’homme.’’ Le voisin ou l’ami d’enfance qui devient cet être diabolique capable des pires atrocités.Nous allons orienter notre analyse vers trois principaux axes de recherche que sont : l’étude du texte, celui du contexte et du métatexte. / To look at writing in relation to history is to link two important moments of the activity. It might be considered that what is written is that which lasts, that is, worthy of being transmitted. It goes the same with historical events which are transmitted through writing from generation to generation. Writing is thus a sign, a memory of history. However, history seems to be opposed to literary writing. It is a common opinion that only the things which are opposed to reality are found in literary works and this idea comes close to being an imagination or even a simulation. This literary text approach is henceforth a little bit rattled if testimonies and biographies are included, especially the testimonies of the genocide survivors and not to say those of the “killers”.This general questioning equally applies to all literatures, notably to the texts about the Rwandan genocide. The issue of the putting down in writing of a tragic page of History identically arises here. How to tell without transcending the factual? Is language capable of grasping the horrors of this genocide, how should one write? These are in few words the issues addressed in this literature. In this regard, Jean Hatzfeld presents himself as an investigator who passes down the results of a profound experience about the Rwandan genocide. His book “Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak”, a second narrative of a trilogy concerning the Rwandan genocide, reveals a process of reconstituting the traces of history through an almost natural testimony by the Hutus who took part in the massacre of the Tutsi. What makes this text unusual is the setting down in terms of discourse of the executioners’ narrative. That is, those who fully took part in the massacre of humans as actors and troop leaders. To the author, it is a question of getting people to speak, who had the power of life or of death over their fellow. Man is seen here by Thomas Hobbes formula as “a wolf to man”. The neighbour or childhood friend becomes that diabolic being capable of the worst atrocities.Our analysis will be focussed on the following three main aspects: text, context and metatext studies.

Submitted by JOSIANE SANTOS DE OLIVEIRA (josianeso) on 2017-06-26T13:54:27Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Anderson Prado_.pdf: 4318088 bytes, checksum: 2e32556ea8acb68240552a2d412ddc41 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-26T13:54:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Anderson Prado_.pdf: 4318088 bytes, checksum: 2e32556ea8acb68240552a2d412ddc41 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-04-11 / Nenhuma / Este trabalho tem a intenção de trazer à analise um evento ocorrido na Ucrânia Soviética no inicio da década de 1930. O Holodomor, que na tradução literal significa “morte pela fome”, resultou na morte de milhões de pessoas na Ucrânia sob a égide do governo stalinista entre 1932 e 1933. Para tal estudo, utilizaremos aportes teóricos da história e imprensa, história e memória e da história oral, tendo como fonte o Jornal Prácia, um periódico fundado em 1912, na comunidade ucraniana da região centro sul do estado do Paraná, Prudentópolis. Esta tese também tem a intenção de compreender como essas informações trazidas pelo jornal eram percebidas e assimiladas pelos imigrantes ucranianos que viviam no Brasil e de que forma a tragédia ocorrida em sua terra de origem foi reelaborada na memória desses imigrantes. / This work has the pretension of bringing to the analysis an event occurred in Soviet Ukraine in the early 1930s. The Holodomor, which in the literal translation means "death by hunger”, resulted in the death of millions of people in Ukraine under the aegis of the Stalinist government between 1932 and 1933. For this study, we will use theoretical contributions from history and the press, history and memory and oral history, from the newspaper Prácia, a newspaper founded in 1912 in the Ukrainian community of the south central region of the state of Paraná, Prudentópolis. This thesis also intends to understand how this information brought by the newspaper was perceived and assimilated by the Ukrainian immigrants who lived in Brazil and how the tragedy occurred in their homeland was reworked in the memory of these immigrants.

Dès 1997, des témoins rwandais rescapés d'un des événements les plus sombres du XXème siècle ont témoigné de leur expérience au cœur du génocide Tutsi survenu trois ans auparavant. La nécessité de mettre en récit l’horreur traversée a fait naître, en langue française, une littérature d’« un genre nouveau » qui n’existait pas dans le pays. En analysant seize récits rwandais de témoins directs du génocide, la thèse discute l’obstacle présupposé de leur co-écriture et met en évidence l’émergence et la singularité de cette littérature de témoignage : sa naissance dans la déchirure ; son mode spécifique d’élaboration ; sa poéticité ; sa rhétorique de la pulvérisation inhérente au traumatisme et, spécificité remarquable dans une culture où l’expression du « moi » n’est guère encouragée, son hybridation entre témoignage et autobiographie. Au confluent de l’histoire personnelle et de l’Histoire collective, certains témoins rescapés ont en effet exploré la voie d’une narration intime afin de reconstruire ce que le génocide a fait voler en éclats : le rapport à soi-même et à une communauté qui, après les avoir niés en tant qu’êtres humains, a tardé à les reconnaître en tant que victimes. Ce projet testimonial constitue tout autant une tentative de résilience qu’une quête de justice, un acte conclusif du deuil et une difficile progression de la survie vers la vie. Cette thèse inscrit de plein droit dans la littérature des œuvres essentielles et irremplaçables pour approcher au plus près la vérité du traumatisme et des faits génocidaires endurés. / Since 1997 Rwandan witnesses who have survived the Tutsi genocide in Rwanda in 1994 have related their dreadful experience of one of the worst events of the 20th century. The urge to write about this terrible event was the starting point of a new genre of writing in French in the country. By analysing sixteen direct witnesses' accounts this thesis examines the assumption that the need to resort to another person to transcribe their oral testimonies could present an obstacle. It reveals the newness and singularity of this " witness literature " : a dramatic break from all traditional artistic forms, the specific technique with a note of poetry, the way it describes the devastation caused by the traumatic events. Moreover what is remarkable in a culture in which self- expression is not encouraged is how it combines testimony and autobiography. Indeed where personal history and collective history meet, by telling their private accounts some surviving witnesses have been able to rebuild what the genocide had destroyed, that is to say introspection and the relationship with the community which not only had not considered them as human beings but had also delayed recognising them as victims. This " testimony project" is an attempt at resilience and a demand for justice as well, a way of coming out of mourning in order to be able to go on living. This thesis intends to fully acknowledge the literary quality of these very important, essential writings and to understand the intensity of the trauma caused by the criminal acts they had to endure during the genocide.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Political Science, 2002. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 395-406). / This dissertation explores the causes of, and possible remedies for, extremely violent ethnic conflict. It starts from a robust yet under-explored finding in the literature: Most groups that fall victim to genocidal violence actually trigger their own demise by launching armed secessions or revolutions against state authorities that only then retaliate with genocide or forced migration ("ethnic cleansing"). Accordingly, the dissertation asks why groups that are vulnerable to genocidal retaliation would provoke that very outcome by launching such "tragic challenges." To explain this phenomenon, the dissertation employs three case studies to test three hypotheses drawn from rational deterrence theory. The cases focus on three subordinate groups whose armed challenges provoked genocidal retaliation: Bosnia's Muslims in 1992-95; Rwanda's Tutsi in 1990-94; and Kosovo's Albanians in 1998-99. To gain further insight by adding variation on the theory's dependent variable, the dissertation also examines an earlier period of the third case during which the subordinate group did not launch a violent challenge, despite having substantial grievances, and thereby avoided genocidal violence (Kosovo's Albanians in 1989-97). he three hypotheses are as follows: (1) the group did not expect its armed challenge to provoke genocidal retaliation; (2) the group expected to suffer genocidal violence regardless of whether or not it launched an armed challenge; (3) the group expected its armed challenge to provoke genocidal retaliation but viewed this as an acceptable cost to achieve its goal of secession or revolution. The dissertation confirms the third hypothesis: subordinate groups launch tragic challenges when they expect to prevail and are willing to civilians as the cost of doing so. / (cont.) Most surprisingly, the dissertation finds that a key cause of the optimism leading to tragic challenges is the expectation by subordinate groups of receiving humanitarian military intervention if they provoke genocidal retaliation against themselves. This reveals that international policies of humanitarian intervention create moral hazard, encouraging vulnerable groups to launch armed challenges and thereby potentially causing the tragic outcomes that these policies are intended to prevent. The dissertation concludes by exploring prescriptions to mitigate this newly discovered "moral hazard of humanitarian intervention." / Alan J. Kuperman. / Ph.D.

Esta dissertação de início trata das particularidades do processo de mobilização pelo trabalho da imigração armênia no Distrito de Presidente Altino, localizado no município de Osasco, em relação com a capital paulista. Esse processo tem como referencial histórico de mobilização o Genocídio Armênio perpetrado pelo Império Otomano durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial (1914-1918), intepretada aqui a partir da mobilização geral (Gaudemar, 1981), momento histórico em que todos os esforços estão voltados para a produção, fazendo da guerra uma constante necessária à acumulação de capitais. Tentamos problematizar os desdobramentos históricos da relação social capitalista que foram transformando os sentidos da acumulação de capitais ao longo do século XX, bem como a dinâmica das personificações daí resultantes, até o contemporâneo capitalismo baseado na reprodução ficctícia do valor. Partindo da pesquisa histórica de trajetórias de mobilização aliada a observações feitas em trabalhos de campo, foram realizadas viagens à Argentina, Uruguai no intuito de apresentar as contradições perceptíveis entre a identidade armênia dessas localidades visitadas e a identidade observada em viagem à Armênia. / This dissertation deals with the particularities of the process of mobilization for the work of Armenian immigration in the District of Presidente Altino, located in the municipality of Osasco, in relation to the capital of São Paulo. This process has as a historical reference for mobilization the Armenian Genocide perpetrated by the Ottoman Empire during World War I (1914-1918), interpreted here using the concept of general mobilization (Gaudemar, 1981), historical moment in which all the efforts are directed to the production, requiring constant war to the accumulation of capital. We have tried to problematize the historical unfoldings of the capitalist social relationship that have been transforming the meanings of capital accumulation throughout the twentieth century, as well as the dynamics of the personifications resulting therefrom reaching the contemporary capitalism based on the fictional reproduction of value. Starting from the historical research of mobilization trajectories allied to observations made in field research. Travels were made to Argentina, Uruguay in order to present the perceptible contradictions between the Armenian identity of these visited localities and the identity observed during the travel to Armenia.

Les résultats de cette thèse qui avait comme objectifs d’analyser la résilience des enfants rwandais nés du viol commis pendant le génocide et d’examiner les facteurs de protection et de risque en jeu, montrent que ces enfants ont le score total moyen à l’échelle de résilience de Wagnild et Young qui les situe à un bas niveau de résilience ; les filles ont un score total moyen de résilience plus élevé que les garçons ; les participants ayant atteint le niveau d’études secondaire ont un score supérieur à celui des enfants qui ont seulement accédé à l’école primaire et à celui des enfants qui ne sont jamais allés à l’école ; les enfants qui sont restés là où le viol de la mère a été perpétré ont un score plus élevé que ceux qui se sont éloignés de cet endroit ; le score des enfants groupés en association est nettement supérieur à celui des enfants sans association. Les participants ont bénéficié de peu de facteurs de protection, de très peu de facteurs de protection familiaux et environnementaux, qu’ils jouissent pourtant de beaucoup de facteurs de protection individuels ; ils ont fait face à un nombre relativement petit de facteurs de risque, à un petit nombre de facteurs de risque individuels et à un grand nombre de facteurs de risque familiaux et environnementaux. Les problèmes les plus évoqués par les participants sont les tentatives d’avortement, les tentatives d’infanticide, l’abandon, le rejet, la haine, la négligence, la maltraitance, la stigmatisation, la honte, la culpabilité et la pauvreté ; et face à ces difficultés, des stratégies d’adaptation comme la maturité précoce, les attitudes familio-centrifuges, l’auto-inhibition, l’humour, les prières, l’opposition, l’abus de drogues, la ségrégation relationnelle, la prostitution et le groupement en associations ont été mises en place. / Results of this thesis, which had as objectives analyzing the resilience of Rwandan children born from rape perpetrated during the genocide and scrutinizing protective and risk factors involved, show that those children have a low level of resilience as proven by their average at the resilience scale of wagnild and young; girls have a higher score of resilience than boys; participants with secondary education scored higher than children who only attended primary school and ones who never went to school; children who remained where the mother's rape was perpetrated have a higher score than those who have moved away from that place; and the score of children grouped in an association is significantly higher than the one of children without association. The participants have benefited from few protective factors, very few family and environmental protective factors, while they enjoy many individual protective factors; they faced a relatively small number of risk factors, a small number of individual risk factors, and a large number of family and environmental risk factors. The most mentioned problems by participants are abortion attempts, infanticide attempts, abandonment, rejection, hatred, neglect, abuse, stigma, shame, guilt and poverty; and coping strategies such as early maturity, familio-centrifugal attitudes, self-inhibition, humor, prayers, opposition, drug abuse, relational segregation, prostitution and the grouping in associations have been set up.