本論文「客語「放」及其同類動詞：框架語義與構式之互動」以Fillmore (1985)提出的「框架語義」以及Goldberg (1995)等學者提出的「構式語法」觀點為基礎，分析客語「放」字構式呈現的多義現象。客語「放」字涉及「使動事件」：空間位移與狀態變化。本文著重分析「使動結構」與客語「放」字在動賓、動補及句子等構式中語意－句法的互動。同時藉助隱喻與轉喻的強化，說明客語「放」字延伸語意之間的關聯性，並進一步闡述客語「放」字在動賓結構中詞彙化為複合詞的現象。此外，本文亦檢視客語其他放置類動詞：方向同類動詞、工具同類動詞、方式同類動詞，經由審視其詞彙化類型與框架語義之互動，說明其語意內涵與句法上的表現。因此，本論文經由分析詞彙化類型與探討事件架構中參與角色的展現與否，說明客語放置類動詞語意與句法間的相互關係。 / English verbs describing putting, a prototypical exemplar of a caused-motion activity, have been pervasively found to be the first acquired and the most frequently used verbs in many languages. Their semantic compatibility with various syntactic structures reinforces the association between verbal meanings and the constructions, giving rise to a grouping of related but distinct senses (Goldberg et al. 2004). Piong3 (放) ‘to put’ in Hakka is abundant in semantics. The basic meaning of piong3 designates a common pattern of human experience: An animate entity exerts manual force upon a physical object and causes the object to move. Adopting Goldberg’s (1995) Constructions and Fillmore’s (1985) Frame Semantics, this study aims to account for the meaning relatedness latent in piong3 and explicate the shades of meaning rooted in the set of its congeners with different degree of family resemblance. It is argued that the delicate nuances denoted by piong3 are derived from the interaction between frames and constructions while the extended meanings of piong3 are linked to its typical use through various metaphors and metonymies such as CONTAINER, EVENT STRUCTURE, CHANGE OF STATE AS CHANGE OF LOCATION metaphors and ACTION FOR RESULT metonymy. Furthermore, with regard to congeners of piong3 in Hakka, it is maintained that differences in profiling and lexicalization patterns capture the primary difference between piong3 and its congeners. Specifically, piong3 does not lexicalize other semantic elements (i.e. path, means, manner, result, and etc.) into its lexical meaning whereas its congeners explicitly do so, in that three subtypes of the congeners can be identified: directional congeners, means congeners, and manner congeners.

本論文主要採用Jackendoff (2002)之平行結構(parallel architecture)來展現客語潛能補語各次構式在音韻、句法以及語意結構的共性與殊性，並據此呈現此構式於抽象性連續體(continuum of schematicity)上由「完全能產性」(fully productive)、「半能產性」(semi-productive)至「完全獨特性」(fully idiomatic)各區段之分佈狀態，進一步歸納出此構式家族之構式基模(constructional schema)以及繼承階層體系(inheritance hierarchy)。在構式語法精神下，每個構式皆是「形式-功能」之組合，Jackendoff (2002)之平行結構極為精細且縝密地描繪構式之「形式」面向。而為了檢視論元角色如何體現於客語潛能補語構式，認知語法中對事件概念之處理方式是不容忽視的，因此，為了補強平行結構在呈現構式「認知功能」面向之不足，本論文將Langacker (1991)認知模型中「行為鏈」(action chain)、「撞球模型」(billiard ball model)、「舞台模型」(stage model)等認知概念整合至平行結構中，用以顯示說話者對事件之概念化如何影響客語潛能構式之論元體現，進一步檢視此構式形式與功能之象徵性關係在連續體上之展現。藉由構式理論與認知模型之整合，本研究為語言形式與功能之對應提供一縝密之分析模式，並得以反思構式語法之應用性與發展性。 / Adhering to the constructional view claiming that every construction is a form-function pairing, this dissertation provides a detailed analysis of the correspondence between linguistic manifestations and speaker's construal of events. The main focus of this study is on the interactions between argument realizations and event conception in Hakka potential complement constructions. In order to show more vividly the subtle interfacing relationships among phonological, syntactic and semantic structures, this study adopts Jackendoff's (2002) parallel architecture to present clearly the degree of schematicity of Hakka PC constructions. On the other hand, further integrating the cognitive representations such as action chains and stage model from Langacker's (1991) Cognitive Grammar into the parallel architecture crystallizes the symbolic relations between the constructional form and function. Members of Hakka PC constructions are shown to be distributed on a continuum of schematicity, from fully productive cases, to semi-productive cases, and finally to fully substantive cases. Moreover, all subconstructions form a family, organized in an inheritance hierarchy in which the one at the lower level inherits general qualities from its inheritor, and at the same time possess its own uniqueness. Integrating the cognitive and the constructional models, this dissertation proposes a fine-grained and full-fledged analysis of both the regularities and the idiosyncrasies of Hakka PC constructions.

本文以優選理論的觀點分析美濃客語的陰平變調。討論可分為兩部分，首先，針對於變調的範疇，文章從句法與音韻的介面關係探討陰平變調的範疇，結果顯示陰平變調是以語調詞組(Intonational Phrase)作為變調的範疇，而這也為韻律結構的存在提供了證據。語調詞組的形成與感知單位(Sense Unit Condition)和重組(Restructuring)有密切的關係。另外，也探討了語調詞組中的特殊結構，發現語料支持Nespor & Vogel (1986)的假設，即特殊結構可以先形成一個獨立的語調詞組。 探討完變調範疇之後，將以優選理論進行分析。本文提出兩組制約:聲調制約和韻律制約。聲調制約著重在解釋變調的運作，而韻律制約則負責解釋變調範疇的劃分，這兩組制約不僅能解釋一般句子的變調，亦能對特殊結構的變調現象予以充分的說明。針對於變讀的情形，本文以並存音韻理論(Cophonology Theory)來作解釋，藉由*IP和ALIGN-R (Non-adjunct XP, IP)兩個制約的重新排序，得到變調與不變調兩種讀法的範疇的劃分。 / This thesis is aimed at analyzing Yinping tone sandhi in Meinong Hakka from the perspective of Optimality Theory. The discussion is divided into two parts. First, this thesis explores the tonal domain in terms of the interface of syntax and phonology. The analysis indicates that the tonal domain is founded on an intonational phrase. The formation of an intonational phrase is based on the Sense Unit Condition (Selkirk, 1984) and is closely related to restructuring (Nespor and Vogel, 1986). The special constructions of IPs are also investigated. The data supports the hypothesis proposed by Nespor and Vogel (1986), namely, that these special constructions have the privilege to form an isolated intonational phrase. Secondly, Optimality Theory is adopted to analyze the data after exploring the tonal domain. Two set of constraints are proposed in this thesis. One is that of tonal constraints, which are mainly concerned with the processing of tone sandhi. The other is that of prosodic constraints, which are responsible for explaining the delimitation of the tonal domains of the data. The two sets of constraints can be used to account for the operation of the sandhi phenomena in ordinary sentences and also in special constructions. The alternative readings are explained by means of the re-ranking of *IP and ALIGN-R (Non-adjunct XP, IP) from the perspective of Cophonology Theory.

本研究以台灣客家採茶戲的發展及其文本形成為題，針對客家採茶戲的「劇目形成」、「文本型態」、「劇本改編」進行文學向度的考察。 一、劇目的形成與發展 自從1910年代客家三腳採茶戲發展為改良採茶戲之後，演出場域歷經「內台」、「外台」、「電台」、「文化公演」、「電視台」等不同的表演場域。由於每個場域的性質使然，而有不同的劇目產生、類型的形成，以及表演風格等。 二、文本型態的考察 探討採茶戲常見的兩種文本類型「幕表戲」與「定本戲」，考察文本的特徵及結構、導演的說戲、演員的即興演出，以及民間戲班對於「幕表戲」與「定本戲」的運用。 三、特定作品的跨場域改編 選取黃天敏的內台戲《太平天國》，討論由「定本戲到幕表戲」的改編歷程。以及曾先枝三齣公演代表作《三娘教子》、《李阿三嫁母》、《緣訂三生》，討論「幕表戲到定本戲」的改編歷程。 / The study using the development of Hakka tea-picking drama and its text formation as the topic aims at the repertoire formation, text types, and opera revision as the aspects of literature to review. I. The formation and development of repertoire: The Hakka three-role tea-picking drama has developed as the improved tea-picking opera since the 1910s, the different performing field has experienced of indoor, outdoor, radio station, cultural performance, and TV station, and so on. Due to the impact on each field, there is different generation of repertoires, the formations of types, and performing style, etc.. II. The review of text types: It discusses of two frequently shown text types in the tea-picking opera: scenario drama and standard drama to review the characteristics and structures of text, the director’s explanation of the story, the player’s improvisation, and the folk theatrical troupe’s the applications of scenario drama and standard drama. III. The revision of drama in cross-field theatre There are selected of indoor Taiwan directors’ revised course, Tien-Ming Huang’s discussion of Taiping Heavenly Kingdom from standard drama to scenario drama and Xian-Zhi Zeng’ three represented publications, the discussions of Third Madame educates her son, A-San Li’s remarried mother, and Fate for three lifetimes from scenario drama to standard drama.

published_or_final_version / Architecture / Master / Master of Landscape Architecture

大部分在台灣的客家人都會說中文,但是其中有些客家人說國語時會留下客語的遺跡。本篇論文已語言上,場合正式性上,地理區域,以及社會因素等方面探討部分客家人把國語的/ɕ/唸成[s]的原因。 本篇論文包含量化分析以及質化分析,在量化分析上透過面對面的交談,念文章,以及唸單字等方法來收集資料。量化分析上總共有32位受試者,且受試者依照性別,教育程度,年齡以及地理區域以二分法的方式。而在質化分析上的受試者和量化分析的受試者為同一批人,但只有29位再次參與調查。 本篇主要的發現為: (1)在語言內部因素中,字頻,鄰近音,以及音節結構對於語音變異皆有影響。(2)語音變異的確有擴散的現象。(3)在語言外部的因素中,年齡以及地理區域的影響比場合正式性及性別來得大,但教育程度的影響則很微弱。整體而言:(1)本篇調查的語音透過語言內部,場合正式性,社會以及地理空間擴散 (2)語言內部以及語言外部皆對與音變異有影響,但語言外部的因素的影響比內部因素來得大。 / Most Hakka speakers in Taiwan, if not all, speak Mandarin Chinese. Among them, many leave some traces of their Hakka background in their Mandarin pronunciation. This thesis aims at analyzing the linguistic, situational, geographical, and social causes of the emergence of [s] as a phonetic variant of /ɕ/ in Mandarin by Hakka speakers. In this study, both quantitative and qualitative analyses were conducted to locate the internal and the external constraints on the target phonetic variation. Those data for quantitative analyses were collected from the linguistic production by 32 native speakers of Hakka in casual conversation, reading passage, and reading characters. Subjects of this study are equally distributed to two genders, two education levels, two age groups, and two geographical areas (namely, in Taoyuan City and Chungli City, two cities in which a large proportion of Hakka speakers reside) . As for data for qualitative analyses collected from 29 of the 32 subjects of the quantitative tests, only those parts of the qualitative design that were implemented correctly were analyzed. The major findings of this study are (1) among the internal factors, word frequency, preceding vowels, and syllable structure were found to be influential to the target phonetic variation; (2) the target phonetic variation does expands through lexical diffusion; and (3) among the external factors, age and geographical area are more influential than situational formality and gender, but the impact of education level is weak. General conclusion of this study include (1) this target phonetic variation is expanding gradually through linguistic, situational, and social/geographical spaces; and (2) both internal and external factors are effective, with external factors being more influential than internal factors. Key words: phonetic variation, lexical diffusion, formality, Hakka dialect, sociolinguistic variation, ethnic identity

本論文為以共振峰頻率資料來研究海陸腔客語母音音質之聲學研究。 語言學的文獻中，以共振峰頻率資料來研究世界上各種語言的母音的音質已經有相當豐富的文獻，在過去五十年來，前人在客語的語音及音韻系統上已經有豐富的研究成果。但以聲學資料來對海陸客語做描述的文獻相當缺乏。 本研究的受試者為居住在新竹縣新埔鎮，六位以海陸腔客家話為母語的人士，其中有三名男性及三名女性。本研究使用了32個測試字，包含了單元音、雙合元音及三合元音。語音資料是利用KAY CSL 4100 (KAY Electronics)來做分析。本研究測試字包含的音節結構有:CV, CVV, CVVC, CVC, 以及CVVV。測試字在實驗的過程中，被受試者單獨發音，或是放在句子中間。在實驗資料完成分析後，我們以Origin 6.0軟體繪出海陸腔客語母音的聲學空間圖。 根據供振峰研究資料，本研究得到以下有關海陸腔客語母音音質的表現。首先關於單元音，海陸腔客語共有六個單元音: [i], [e], [ɨ], [a], [o], 以及 [u]。其次，海陸腔客語共有十一個雙元音: [ie], [ia], [io], [iu], [eu], [ai], [au], [oi], [ui], [ue], 以及 [ua]。我們比較單元音及雙元音的聲學空間圖(vowel space)後，發現相同的母音在雙母音的環境下，由於受到鄰近母音發音位置的影響，在聲學空間上，比起在單母音的時候，變的更高低，或更前或後。第三，三母音[iai], [iau]和[uai]在聲譜圖上的表現，第一個母音[i]和[u]都比其後的兩個母音，長度來的相對的短一些，表現很像是滑音[j]和[w]。 最後，本研究以共振峰聲學頻率的形式描述及記錄了當代海陸腔客語母音的音質，前人的研究中，以楊時逢(1952)最能說明本研究所提供的聲學資料。希望這些資料能對海陸腔客語母音的研究有所貢獻。 / This thesis is an acoustic study that investigates the vowel quality of Hai-lu Hakka vowels with formant frequency data. The acoustic method has been widely applied to the study of vowel quality of languages worldwide. In the past 50 years, Hakka researchers have yielded rich results in phonological system and phonetic description of Hakka, but there are relatively fewer research focus on the acoustic properties and characteristics of vowel phones in Hai-lu Hakka. The subjects of this study included three male and three female native Hai-lu Hakka speakers. Testing items used in this study were 32 syllables that involve monophthongs, diphthongs, and triphthongs. The speech data were analyzed by using KAY CSL 4100 (KAY Electronics). The data discussed in this study were testing items produced in citation form and sentence form, including the following syllable structures: CV, CVC, CVV, CVVC, and CVVV. The vowel qualities of Hai-lu Hakka vowels were measured and analyzed, and the acoustic vowel space of Hai-lu Hakka is plotted by the software Origin 6.0. Several results concerning the vowel quality of Hai-lu Hakka vowels were reported based on the formant frequency data. Firstly, there are six monophthongs in the vowel system of Hailu Hakka: [i], [e], [ɨ], [a], [o], and [u]. Secondly, there are eleven diphthongs in the vowel system of Hai-lu Hakka : [ie], [ia], [io], [iu], [eu], [ai], [au], [oi], [ui], [ue], and [ua]. By comparing the relative position of the vowel in a diphthong and the corresponding vowel as in a monophthong, we found that the second vowel in a diphthong tend to be higher or lower, more fontal or back, and it is possibly due to the coarticulatory influence of the adjacent phones.the Thirdly, as shown in the spectrogram of the three tripthongs [iai], [iau] and [uai], the duration of [i] in [iai55], [i] in [tʰiau55] and [u] in [kuai55] are relatively shorter than the rest two vowels in the same syllable, as [ai] in [iai55], [au] in [tʰiau55] and [ai] in [kuai55]. In these CVVV syllables, [u] and [i] are similar to glides or so-called semi-vowels, or approximants [j] and [w] as shown in the spectrogram. Finally, the vowel system in Yang (1957) is more suitable for accounting for the data in this study. Hopefully, the vowel formant data presented in this study will contribute to the study of vowels in Hakka.

日常生活中，由於表達的需要，說話者常會使用強化程度副詞，作為增強或強調其所欲言的一種手段。本論文旨在藉由觀察口語語料庫中的對話，將臺灣客語六個常見強化程度副詞「恁、當、蓋、盡、異、還」視作強化程度副詞詞群，進一步以[DI. + X] 結構討論以下面向：(一) 探討其後接修飾之成分在句法、語意層面之表現。本文發現其後接成分可分為典型成分類與非典型成分類，以形容詞一類為大宗，其後接成分會受到等級性（gradability）、有界與無界性（boundedness）等參數影響語意的解讀。(二) 探討強化程度副詞[DI. + X]結構於句法所扮演的角色。本文發現此結構多半出現在謂語之位置，除了強化語意外，同時也展現說話者之態度或對某主題之評價。(三) 探討強化程度副詞[DI. + X] 結構於口語使用中的語法化與詞彙化現象，本文認為這些現象由於溝通需要，亦會伴隨提升主觀性（subjectivity），尤其是強化程度副詞「恁」的主觀性為詞群中最高。藉由上述不同面向探討與分析臺灣客語六個強化程度副詞「恁」、「當」、「蓋」、「盡」、「異」、「還」之表現，以期能更系統性解釋強化程度副詞是如何在口語使用中展現與運作。 / The aim of the present study is to examine the [DI. + X] construction manifested by the six degree intensifiers 恁an2, 當dong1, 蓋goi3 , 盡qin3 ,異i3 , and還han5 in Taiwan Hakka based on their authentic usages in a spoken corpus. Three findings can be reported as follows. First, by exploring the modified elements from the aspect of their structure and meaning, the study classifies the modified elements into canonical and non-canonical usages. X as AP takes up the majority of the occurrences of the syntactic categories. Such manifestation can be accounted for various linguistic behaviors of gradability and boundedness. Second, the [DI. + X] construction usually serves as a predicate, the prominent grammatical function, in a clause. This implies that the [DI. + X] construction is generally adopted by different speakers to not only add intensity but also make judgements or comments. Third, the [DI. + X] construction displays grammaticalization and lexicalization. Due to communication needs, these linguistic phenomena can also motivate the subjectivity. It is found that the [恁an2 + X] construction can display the highest subjectivity among the six. To sum up, this study, with its analysis of different syntactic and semantic aspects of the six degree intensifiers in Taiwan Hakka, offers useful insights into explaining the manifestation of degree intensifiers during speech.

No description available.

China and India claimed two territories along their borders on the Himalayas: Aksai Chin in the west and the North-East Frontier Agency in the east. The border dispute escalated and, on October 20, 1962, the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) opened fire on the two fronts and advanced into the disputed territories. One month later, on November 21, China declared a unilateral ceasefire and withdrew behind its disputed line of control. In response, the Indian government arrested over 2,000 Chinese living in India and interned them in Deoli, Rajasthan. When the Chinese were released between 1964 and 1966, they found their properties sold off by the Indian government. Many left India and immigrated to Canada. I interviewed four Indian-born Chinese who were interned and who now live in the Greater Toronto Area. I recorded their accounts of life in Deoli Detention Camp in Rajasthan.