O presente projeto teve como objetivo selecionar componentes orgânicos para obtenção de compósitos híbridos pela técnica sol-gel utilizando como precursor tetraetilortossilicato (TEOS) visando avaliar o efeito do agente orgânico na evolução do sol para gel e nas propriedades finais dos suportes para imobilizar a lipase microbiana de Burkholderia cepacia. Foram testados três compostos orgânicos ?-ciclodextrina (?CD), carboximetilcelulose (CMC) e hidroxietilcelulose (HEC) e os resultados obtidos foram comparados com o comportamento já estabelecido para o polivinilálcool (PVA), tanto em termos morfológicos como atividade catalítica em meio aquoso (hidrólise de triacilgliceróis) e meio orgânico (síntese de éster de cadeia curta e longa). A motivação do estudo está diretamente relacionada com a elevada afinidade do suporte híbrido SiO2-PVA pelo glicerol, sendo uma das limitações do uso deste suporte para imobilizar lipases com finalidade de aplicação em reações de transesterificação conduzidas em fluxo contínuo. As características morfológicas e estruturais dos suportes resultantes foram determinadas empregando técnicas convencionais, indicando similaridade das propriedades estruturais, fornecendo suportes com áreas superficiais entre 361,6 a 529,7 m2 g-1 e morfologia amorfa. A diferença marcante entre os suportes foi verificada quanto a capacidade de adsorção do subproduto da reação de transesterificação, sendo verificado que a substituição do polivinilálcool por ?-ciclodextrina reduziu em até 50% a habilidade do suporte hibrido em absorver glicerol. Os componentes derivados de celulose apresentaram resultados similares aos obtidos com o polivinilálcool. Em termos de afinidade pelo glicerol os resultados obtidos permitiram a classificação dos suportes híbridos na seguinte ordem crescente: SiO2-CMC > SiO2-PVA > SiO2-HEC > SiO2- ?CD. Quanto a afinidade dos suportes para imobilização da lipase de B. cepacia, os valores de atividade hidrolítica dos derivados imobilizados, nas condições adotadas, revelaram que todos os suportes tiveram o mesmo tipo de interação com a enzima resultando em valores de recuperação de atividade na faixa de 56 - 63%, valores próximos aos normalmente obtidos pela matriz de SiO2-PVA (68%). Os parâmetros cinéticos (Km e Vmax) determinados indicaram que a lipase imobilizada nos diferentes tipos de suporte, apresentou afinidade semelhante pelo substrato azeite de oliva. Os valores determinados de Km e Vmax da lipase de B. cepacia na forma livre (Km = 410 mM e Vmax =12391 Ug-1) mostraram que independente do suporte, a imobilização reduziu aproximadamente 60% da afinidade da enzima pelo substrato. Em meio orgânico, tanto as reações de esterificação como de transesterificação mediadas pelos derivados imobilizados apresentaram desempenho similar com atividade de esterificação da ordem de 118 ?M.g-1min-1 e rendimentos de formação de ésteres etílicos da ordem de 98,30%. De uma forma geral, os resultados obtidos foram promissores e permitiram selecionar o composto orgânico ?CD para substituir com vantagens o polivinilálcool no preparo de matrizes hibridas para imobilização da enzima lipase. O menor poder hidrofílico desta matriz em relação às outras matrizes testadas pode ser creditado a estrutura cíclica da ?CD que reduziu a capacidade do suporte SiO2-?CD em adsorver glicerol, principal subproduto da reação de transesterificação. Testes em processos conduzidos em fluxo contínuo são sugeridos para comprovação da eficiência dessa matriz. / The objective of this work was to select organic compounds for preparing hybrid composites by the sol-gel technique using tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) as precursor aiming at evaluating the effect of the organic agent in the transformation of the sol into gel and in the final properties of the matrices for immobilizing lipase from Burkholderia cepacia. Three organic components ?-cyclodextrin (?CD), carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) were tested. The organic component polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was used as control taking into consideration its morphological properties and the catalytic activity of the immobilized derivative in aqueous medium (triacylglycerols hydrolysis) and organic medium (synthesis of short and long chain esters). The motivation of this work was directly related with the high affinity of the matrix polysiloxane-polyvinyl alcohol (SiO2- PVA) by the glycerol, limiting the use of the immobilized derivative in the transesterification reactions running on a continuous flow. The morphological and structure properties of the resulting matrices was determined using conventional techniques, showing similar structure properties, with surface area values between 361.6 and 529.7 m2g-1 and amorphous morphology. The main difference among the matrices were observed regarding their ability to adsorb glycerol, the main byproduct of the transesterification reaction. It was verify that the replacement of the polyvinyl alcohol by ?-cyclodextrin reduced in about 50% the hybrid composite capacity to adsorb glycerol. On the other hand, the cellulose components showed similar results as the polyvinyl alcohol. Considering as an evaluated parameter the glycerol affinity, the achieved results allowed classifying the hybrid composites as follows: SiO2- CMC > SiO2-PVA > SiO2-HEC > SiO2-?CD. The performance of the hybrid composites for immobilizing lipase from B. cepacia, through the hydrolytic activity reveal that all the matrices show the same interaction with the lipase, resulting in activity recovered values between 56-63%, which is close to the value attained by SiO2-PVA matrix (68%). The kinetic parameters (Km and Vmax) values determined for free lipase (Km = 410 and Vmax = 12391 Ug-1), showed that independely of the immobilization support the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate was reduced by 60%. In organic medium, all the immobilized derivatives showed similar behavior on both esterification and transesterification reactions attaining esterification activity of 118 ?M.g-1min-1 and ethyl ester yields of 98.30%. Overall, the results were promising and allowed selecting the organic component ?CD to replace, with advantages, the use of PVA for preparing hybrid composites. The lower hydrophilic capacity of this matrix compared with the others matrices can be explained by the cyclic structure of the ?CD that reduced the capacity of the SiO2-?CD matrix in the glycerol adsorption, the main byproduct of the transesterification reaction. Assays carried out in packed bed reactor running on a continuous basis are propose to confirm the efficiency of this matrix.

En 2004, le carbone, la base de toute vie connue sur Terre, a marqué les esprits une fois de plus: Les scientifiques de l’Université de Manchester au Royaume Uni ont pu extraire une matière carbonée complètement nouvelle, le graphène à partir d’un morceau de graphite comme celui qui compose les crayons. À l’aide d’un ruban adhésif, ils ont obtenu une paillette de carbone de l’épaisseur d’un atome seulement, à une époque où beaucoup pensaient qu’un matériaux cristallin aussi fin ne pouvait pas être stable. Le graphène parfait est une couche monoatomique composée d’atomes de carbone hybridés sp2, arrangés en structure alvéolaire; sa structure chimique particulière lui donne des propriétés physiques et chimique remarquable. Le graphène est devenu rapidement la matière carbonée la plus intensivement étudiée parmi celles «possiblement révolutionnaires», avec ses applications potentielles s’étendant de la microélectronique aux composites, des énergies renouvelables à la médecine. En 2010, Geim et Novoselov ont été récompensés par le prix Nobel de physique pour leurs «expériences révolutionnaires sur les matériaux bi-dimensionnels en graphène» qui a ouvert une nouvelle ère dans la science des matières carbonées.La chimie non-covalente du graphène est exploitée et étudiée dans cette thèse dans le but de concevoir, produire, transformer et caractériser les nouveaux matériaux hybrides graphène-organique. L’étendue de ce travail couvre les aspects mécanistiques de l’exfoliation en phase liquide du graphène avec des colorants, les aspects fondamentaux des interactions entre le graphène et le chromophore, en phase liquide et solide, ainsi que l’élaboration de suspensions hybrides de graphène dans le but d‘applications en électronique organique et dans les matériaux composites polymères fonctionnels. / In 2004, carbon, the basis of all known life on earth, has surprised once again: Researchers from University of Manchester, UK, extracted a completely new carbon material, graphene, from a piece of graphite such as is found in pencils. Using adhesive tape, they obtained a flake of carbon with a thickness of just one single atom, at a time when many believed it impossible for such thin crystalline materials to be stable. Pristine graphene is a mono-atomic sheet of, sp2 hybridized carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb network; this particular chemical structure gives rise to its outstanding physical and chemical properties. Graphene rapidly became the most intensively studied among the ‘possibly revolutionary’carbon materials, with its potential applications reaching from microelectronics to composites, from renewable energy to medicine. In 2010, Geim and Novoselov were honored with the Nobel Prize in Physics for their “ground breaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene” that started a new era in the science of carbon materials.In this thesis we exploit and study the non-covalent chemistry of graphene to design, produce, process and characterize novel graphene organic hybrid materials. The scope of this work covers mechanistic aspects of graphene liquid phase exfoliation with dyes, fundamental aspects of graphene chromophore interactions in liquid and solid phase and the formulation of graphene hybrid suspensions towards application in organic electronics and functional polymer composite materials.

L'objectif de cette recherche est d’explorer de nouvelles voies dans le domaine de la détection de gaz en ajustant finement la nature chimique, la texture et la morphologie de la couche active pour concevoir de nouveaux capteurs de gaz sélectifs. Ainsi, l’obtention de matériau présentant une haute sélectivité vis-à-vis des gaz constitue un enjeu majeur dans le domaine des capteurs de gaz. Notre approche est basée sur la conception de précurseurs moléculaires uniques - les alcynylorganoétains - qui contiennent toutes les fonctionnalités requises pour obtenir des matériaux hybrides stables par le procédé sol-gel, ces matériaux permettant une détection sélective des gaz nocifs / toxiques. Puis, les propriétés de détection de gaz de ces matériaux ont été comparées à celles de nanoparticules de dioxyde d'étain (SnO2) synthétisées à pression autogène. Une série de matériaux fonctionnels à base d'organooxoétains a été déposé sous forme de films minces films par le procédé d’enduction centrifuge puis ces films ont été caractérisés par des mesures de XRD, FT-IR, RAMAN, AFM, SEM, TEM, sorption d’azote et TGA-DTA. Les études de détection de gaz montrent que l'un des oxydes d'organoétain hybride présente une réponse sélective de détection de gaz tels que le CO, H2, l'éthanol, l'acétone et le NO2, tandis que les nanoparticules SnO2 conduisent à une détection non sélective des m^mes gaz dans les mêmes conditions. Ainsi, la meilleure sélectivité vis-à-vis du CO (à 100 et 200 ppm), de H2 (à 100, 200 et 400 ppm) et de NO2 (à 1, 2, 4 et 8 ppm) a été obtenue à 100 ° C pour le matériau hybride organostannique tandis que ce matériau ne conduisait à aucune réponse avec l’éthanol et l’acétone. Par ailleurs, les films de SnO2 nanoparticulaire sont sensibles à tous les gaz testés à de faibles concentrations (CO: 10 ~ 100 ppm, NO2: 0,5 à 4 ppm, H2: 100 à 800 ppm, acétone: 25 à 200 ppm, éthanol : 10 ~ 100 ppm) sur une plage de température comprise entre 200 et 400 °C. En outre, la sélectivité des matériaux SnO2 vis-à-vis de NO2 (entre 0,5 à 4 ppm) peut être optimisée en contrôlent bien la température de détection. Enfin, les matériaux à base d’organoétains et de dioxyde d’étain présentent une capacité de détection de gaz très élevée à de faibles concentrations en gaz. Ces résultats ont permis de développer une classe de matériaux entièrement nouvelle pour la détection sélective de gaz ainsi offrent la possibilité d'intégrer une fonctionnalité organique dans les oxydes métalliques capables de détecter les gaz. / The ultimate objective of this research is to draw new prospects in the gas sensing field by finely tuning the chemical nature, the texture and the morphology of the active layer to develop new type selective gas sensors. High gas selectivity has been a challenging issue during the past decades in the gas sensing area. Our approach is based on the design of molecular single precursors – alkynylorganotins which contain suitable functionalities required to obtain stable hybrid materials by the sol-gel method exhibiting selective gas detection towards harmful/toxic gases. Their gas sensing properties have been compared with those of tin dioxide (SnO2) nanoparticles synthesized by the hydrothermal route. A series of functional organooxotin-based materials have been processed as films by the spin or drop coating method and characterized by XRD, FT-IR, RAMAN, AFM, SEM, TEM, N2 sorption and TGA-DTA measurements. Gas sensing studies show that one of the hybrid organotin oxides exhibits an outstanding selective gas sensing response towards various gases, such as CO, H2, ethanol, acetone and NO2 whereas SnO2 nanoparticles present non-selective gas sensing ability under the same experimental condition. Thus, the best gas selectivity toward CO (at 100 and 200 ppm), H2 (at 100, 200 and 400 ppm) and NO2 (at 1, 2, 4 and 8 ppm) was achieved at 100 °C for the hybrid organooxotin-based film, however, it showed no response to ethanol/acetone at the same working temperature. On the other hand, the nanoparticulate SnO2 films prepared are sensitive to all the gases tested at low concentrations (CO: 10~100 ppm; NO2: 0.5~4 ppm; H2: 100~800 ppm; acetone: 25~200 ppm; ethanol: 10~100 ppm) in an operating temperature range from 200 to 400 °C. Moreover, the selectivity of SnO2 materials towards NO2 (between 0.5 ~ 4 ppm) can be optimized by well-manipulating the sensing temperatures. Finally, both organooxotin-based and tin oxide-based materials display superior gas sensing ability at low gas concentrations which opens a fully new class of gas sensing materials as well as a new possibility to integrate organic functionality in gas sensing metal oxides.

The objective of this thesis is to integrate the optical waveguide and single mode fiber in a passive alignment way on a silicon bench. This technique can reduce the complexity of packaging the individual components and increase yield of the module in order to achieve the goal of the mass production. In this module, buried waveguide structure was used for light guidance. A 1.31µm semiconductor laser was used as the input light source. Light signal launched by semiconductor laser is transferred through the buried waveguide into the single mode fiber. This module structure is consisted of two major parts, namely, the buried waveguide and the silicon bench. Buried optical Waveguide uses SO2 as the bottom cladding. Conventional photolithography procedures and etching technique were used to form a trench on the SiO2 cladding. The waveguide core was fabricated by coating the organic-inorganic hybrid materials into the trench. Finally, an organic-inorganic hybrid materials with a refractive index smaller than that of the core is used as the top cladding. The silicon benches were obtained by etching V-groove and saw-cutting U-groove on the silicon substrates for fixing the fiber. The patterning of buried waveguide and silicon V-groove were fabricated by a single optical mask procedure. Therefore accurate alignment between the waveguide and the single mode fiber can be obtained.

In this study, organic-inorganic hybrid materials were prepared from polyurethane and boehmite. It was achieved by polymerizing monomers in the presence of functional nano-particles of boehmite with cyanate groups. The produced polyurethane organic-inorganic hybrid materials with enhanced mechanical properties were used for coating applications. Plate-like boehmite nano-particles were produced by hydrothermal process from aluminum hydroxide which was first ground in a high energy ball-mill, and then, processed hydrothermally under pressure and high temperature in a reactor. The surface morphology and crystal structure of boehmite were investigated by Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Diffraction analyses, respectively. The molecular structures of boehmite particles were investigated by Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy. Furthermore, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis and Photon Correlation Spectroscopy analysis were carried out to determine the surface area and the size of particles. Then, plate-like boehmite nano-particles were functionalized by the reaction of their hydroxyl groups with 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate and 4,4&rsquo / -methylene diphenyl diisocyanate. Scanning Electron Microscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, Differential Thermal Analysis-Thermal Gravimetric Analysis, and elemental analysis were performed for both functionalized and non-functionalized particles to confirm the functionalization of the particles. The polyester polyol used in the production of polyurethane was synthesized from 1,4-butanediol and adipic acid (PE-PO-1), and phthalic anhydride (PE-PO-2). Molecular structure of the polyester polyols was confirmed by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy analysis and molecular weight of the polymers were determined by end group analysis. Then, the produced functionalized nano-particles and polyester polyols were used for producing polyurethane organic-inorganic hybrid materials. Furthermore, polyurethane polymer and polymer-nonfunctionalized boehmite organic-inorganic hybrids were also synthesized for property comparison. Hardness, impact resistance, scratch resistance, abrasion resistance, and gloss property of the samples were determined. It was observed that mechanical properties of organic-inorganic hybrid materials improved significantly. The hardness of the PU produced with PE-PO-1 increased from 82 to 98 Persoz, and the hardness of the PU produced with PE-PO-2 increased from 52 to 78 Persoz when one weight percentage functionalized boehmite was used. The impact resistance of the coatings was found to depend on the type of the polyols used in PU but not in the inorganic component. Therefore PE-PO-2 used PU has higher impact resistance than PE-PO-1 used PU. Scratch resistance of the coatings improved from 2B to 2H when using functionalized boehmite. Abrasion resistance of PUs produced with PE-PO-1 increased from 2 to 10 l/micrometer and abrasion resistance of PUs produced with PE-PO-2 increased from 12 to 20 l/micrometer by addition of functionalized boehmite.

Στην παρούσα εργασία παρουσιάζεται η σύνθεση και η μελέτη υβριδικών υλικών, τα οποία αποτελούνται από νανοσωματίδια εγκλωβισμένα σε οργανικές και ανόργανες μήτρες. Τα υλικά που συντέθηκαν μπορούν να χωριστούν σε δύο κατηγορίες. Η πρώτη περιλαμβάνει μεταλλικά νανοσωματίδια Au και Ag εγκλωβισμένα σε πολυμερικές μήτρες, ενώ η δεύτερη κατηγορία περιλαμβάνει νανοσωματίδια Au, Ag και NiCl2 σε ανόργανες μήτρες. Η εργασία επικεντρώθηκε στην σύνθεση και την φασματοσκοπική μελέτη των υλικών χρησιμοποιώντας όλες τις διαθέσιμες τεχνικές δομικού χαρακτηρισμού των υλικών. Παράλληλα, πραγματοποιήθηκε μελέτη των οπτικών ιδιοτήτων και της χημειο-οπτικής ενεργότητας των υλικών. Επίσης, μελετήθηκε η βιοσυμβατότητα των υλικών στις περιπτώσεις που αυτό ήταν δυνατό. Αναλυτικότερα, στο μεγαλύτερο κομμάτι της εργασίας αυτής περιγράφεται η in situ σύνθεση μεταλλικών νανοσωματιδίων Au και Ag στον πυρήνα και στην κορώνα δισυσταδικών συμπολυμερών καθώς και τυχαίων συμπολυμερών. Το πρωτόκολλο που ακολουθήθηκε περιλαμβάνει τα παρακάτω βήματα: αρχικά για την διαλυτοποίηση του αμφίφιλου συμπολυμερούς επιλέγεται εκλεκτικός διαλύτης ως προς την μία συστάδα του, ώστε να σχηματιστούν μικκήλια αποτελούμενα από ένα συμπαγή πυρήνα και μια διαλυτή κορώνα. Στην συνέχεια, προστίθεται το άλας του μετάλλου στο διάλυμα του συμπολυμερούς με αποτέλεσμα είτε την εισροή του στον πυρήνα, είτε την συναρμογή του μεταλλικού ιόντος με την κορώνα ανάλογα με την χημική συνάφεια που φέρει η κάθε συστάδα ως προς το μέταλλο. Τέλος, ακολουθεί η αναγωγή του μεταλλικών ιόντων σε μεταλλικά νανοσωματίδια είτε προσθέτοντας κάποιο αναγωγικό μέσο, είτε από το ίδιο το συμπολυμερές που περιβάλλει τα μεταλλικά ιόντα. Η δεύτερη κατηγορία υλικών αφορά στην σύνθεση νανοσωματιδίων Au, Ag και NiCl2 σε ανόργανες μήτρες. Σε αυτή την περίπτωση επιλέχθηκαν πρόδρομες ενώσεις SiO2 και TiO2, οι οποίες αναμίχθηκαν με το άλας των μετάλλων ακολουθώντας την μέθοδο sol-gel ώστε να σχηματιστούν νανοσωματίδια. Μελετήθηκε η επίδραση των πειραματικών παραμέτρων, όπως η θέρμανση και η γήρανση, στο μέγεθος και τον βαθμό συσσωμάτωσης των μεταλλικών νανοσωματιδίων καθώς επίσης και στο πορώδες του τελικού υλικού. Από τα διαλύματα που προέκυψαν, σχηματίστηκαν λεπτά υμένια με την μέθοδο του spin-coating, τα οποία στην συνέχεια θερμάνθηκαν σε υψηλές θερμοκρασίες ώστε να απομακρυνθούν οι οργανικές ομάδες και να σταθεροποιηθεί το τελικό υλικό. Μέρος των υβριδικών υλικών που συντέθηκαν μελετήθηκαν ως προς την μη-γραμμική τους απόκριση χρησιμοποιώντας τις τεχνικές OKE και Z-scan. Όπως προέκυψε από τις μετρήσεις τα υλικά αυτά παρουσιάζουν μη-γραμμικότητα, η οποία εξαρτάται άμεσα τόσο από την αναλογία μετάλλου ως προς το συμπολυμερές αλλά και από την σύσταση του ίδιου του συμπολυμερούς. Τα νανοσύνθετα υλικά που συντέθηκαν αξιολογήθηκαν επίσης ως ενεργά υλικά σε πιθανούς φωτονικούς αισθητήρες. Παρατηρήθηκε ότι παρουσία ατμών μεθανόλης και αμμωνίας, συνέβαιναν μορφολογικές αλλαγές στην επιφάνεια των υλικών. Οι αλλαγές αυτές, ο οποίες καταγράφονται ως μεταβολές της διαδιδόμενης δέσμης σε σχέση με την δέσμη αναφοράς, είναι αντιστρεπτές. Τέλος, στις περιπτώσεις που τα υβριδικά υλικά που συντέθηκαν παρουσίαζαν βιοσυμβατότητα, ελέγχθηκε η ικανότητα συναρμογή τους με μόρια πρωτεϊνών και DNA και διερευνήθηκε η πιθανή εφαρμογή τους σε συστήματα βιολογικών παραγόντων. / In the present study the synthesis of hybrid materials consisting of metal nanoparticles incorporated into organic and inorganic matrices is presented. The synthesized materials can be divided into two categories; the first one consists of Au and Ag nanoparticles incorporated into polymeric matrices, while the second one consists of Au, Ag and NiCl2 nanoparticles incorporated into inorganic matrices. The thesis was focused on the synthesis and the spectroscopic study of these materials. Meanwhile, the optical and photonic properties of these materials were exploited. Moreover, the biological applications of the synthesized hybrid materials were investigated. In more detail, the larger part of this work focuses on the in situ synthesis of Au and Ag nanoparticles either inside the core or on the corona of di- and triblock copolymers and random copolymers. More specifically, the synthesis protocol requires three steps. First, the proper solvent must be chosen, which should be selective for one of the blocks of the amphiphilic copolymer, in order for micelles to be formed, consisting of a dense core and a solubilized corona. Then the metal precursor is added, which is preferentially dissolved into the core or is coordinated on the periphery of the corona block, depending on the chemical affinity that each block displays toward the metal compound. Finally, the metal ions are reduced in metal nanoparticles either by the addition of a reducing agent or by the coordinating block of the copolymer. The second category of the materials involves the synthesis of Au, Ag and NiCl2 nanoparticles inside inorganic matrices such as SiO2 and TiO2. Solutions containing SiO2 and TiO2 precursors were mixed with metal salts and the standard sol-gel methods were followed for the in situ synthesis of the hybrid materials. Thermal treatment and ageing were the two main parameters that influenced the size and the degree of aggregation of the metal nanoparticles, as well as the porosity of the final material. The non-linear optical properties of the synthesized hybrid materials were studied using the OKE and Z-scan techniques. All the materials studied displayed nonlinear refraction which was proportional to the ratio between the metal nanoparticles and the polymer. The composition of the block copolymer itself played also an important role. The hybrid nano materials were also evaluated as active components in potential photonic sensors. In the presence of methanol and ammonia, morphological changes on the surface of the materials were noticed. These changes were recorded as a signal modulation in respect to the reference signal. Finally, some of the synthesized hybrid materials displayed biocompatibility and their ability to coordinate with proteins and DNA molecules was examined, toward their utilization in bioanalytical devices.

Ce travail de thèse porte sur une meilleure compréhension de la croissance de nanoparticules d'oxyde de zinc élaborées à partir d'une approche organométallique. Au cours de ce travail, une analyse de la taille des nanoparticules en utilisant un outil simple basée sur une représentation bidimentionnelle couplée à une analyse statistique multivariée. Elle permet d'extraire la corrélation éventuelle entre la longueur et la largeur des nanoparticules. Cette approche permet de traiter un ensemble de nanoparticules homogène ou hétérogène en taille et en forme. Comparée à l'approche statistique usuelle qui analyse individuellement la distribution de la longueur et celle de la largeur, notre démarche met très facilement en évidence les différents types de nanoparticule et leur anisotropie (ou non). Pour chaque classe de nano-objets considérée, la relation entre la longueur et la largeur, c'est-à-dire les corrélations fortes ou faible entre ces deux paramètres, fourni des informations concernant le(s) mécanisme(s) de nucléation-croissance des nanoparticules. Par exemple, cette approche permet de suivre l'effet sur la taille et la forme de nanoparticules préparées par différents procédés (chimiques ou physique). A partir de différentes images de microscopie électronique extraites de la bibliographie ou de nos travaux de recherche, nous avons démontré l'efficacité et la simplicité de cette approche. De plus, nous avons pu revisiter la synthèse organométallique de nanoparticules de ZnO à la lumière de cette nouvelle méthode de traitement des données. Les nanoparticules anisotropes obtenues par hydrolyse du dicyclohexyl zinc comme précurseur organométallique en présence d'alkyl amine uniquement ont donc été analysées. Le mécanisme de formation a été étudié par analyse systématique des images de microscopie électroniques à transmission et une croissance par attachement orienté a pu être mise en évidence. De plus, nous avons montré que la taille des nanabatonnets d'oxyde de zinc peut être facilement contrôlée en modulant la vitesse d'hydrolyse, le temps de maturation du mélange précurseur organométallique et ligand alkyl amine avant le début de l'hydrolyse, la nature du ligand et la quantité d'eau introduite. Enfin, pendant ce travail, nous avons observé la gélification des milieux réactionnels. L'étude de ce phénomène a permis de développer une approche originale permettant de mettre en forme des matériaux hybride organique-inorganiques. En effet, à partir d'un ensemble d'expériences utilisant la rhéologie, la RMN, la MET, des calculs théoriques, le WAXS ... nous avons pu mettre en évidence une réaction d'oligomérisation entre le précurseur organométallique et les ligands alkyl amine. Cette oligomérisation entre les centres métalliques conduit à la formation de gels, qui peuvent être mise en forme en utilisant des seringues, des tampons ou encore des moules. Des matériaux hybrides d'oxydes métalliques sont ensuite obtenus par hydrolyse du gel. Cette nouvelle approche a été développée pour l'oxyde de zinc puis a été étendue aux oxydes d'étain et de fer. Il s'agit donc d'une approche générale qui ouvre des perspectives intéressantes dans l'utilisation de ces matériaux notamment comme couches sensibles pour des capteurs de gaz. / This work is focused on the better understanding of the formation of zinc oxide anisotropic nanoparticle through an organometallic synthesis. To start on this project, the development of a statistical tool to analyze nanoparticle sizes and shapes was mandatory. A simple 2D plot with a multivariate statistical analysis is proposed in order to extract, in particular, the correlation between length and width in a collection or a mixture of anisotropic particles. Compared to the usual statistics on the length associated to a second and independent statistical analysis of the width, this simple plot easily points out the various types of nanoparticles and their (an)isotropy. For each class of nano-objects, the relationship between width and length (i.e. the strong or weak correlations between these two parameters) may suggest information concerning the nucleation-growth processes. It allows one to follow the effect on the shape and size distribution of physical or chemical processes such as simple ripening. Various electronic microscopy pictures from the literature or from our own syntheses are used as examples to demonstrate the efficiency and simplicity of such an analysis. Furthermore, following the organometallic approach, well defined crystalline zinc oxide nanorods are obtained through the hydrolysis reaction of dicyclohexyl zinc precursor without solvent in presence of primary fatty amine only. Their mechanism of formation is studied through a multivariate analysis of TEM results and an oriented attachment process is demonstrated. Taking advantage of this mechanism, the size of the ZnO nanorods can be easily adjusted tuned by controlling adjusting the hydrolysis rate, the aging time before hydrolysis, the nature of ligand, and/or the amount of water. During such experiments, a gelification of the chemical media are for the first time observed. This is the origin of the last part of our work, which put forward an original approach for outstanding processable and reshapable hybrid materials. Indeed, we unequivocally demonstrate through various complementary experiments (rheology, NMR, TEM, theoretical calculation, WAXS...) the formation of oligomeric structures in a mixture of fatty amine with organometallic compounds. This oligomerization reaction between the metallic centers induces the formation of a gel which can be processed into fibers, stamped patterns or molded pieces. Metal oxide hybrid materials are obtained merely by hydrolysis of the organometallic gel, which are furthermore liquid crystal. This unprecedented route towards easily processable hydrid and metal oxide materials is demonstrated for zinc oxide and extended to other metal oxides such as tin oxide and iron oxide, proving the universality of the method and paving the way, for example, to new sensitive gas sensors layers.

La recherche de nouveaux matériaux en tant que photocatalyseurs en lumière visible pour la dépollution de l’environnement (eaux, atmosphères) est un domaine de recherche très actif et suscite l’intérêt d’une large communauté scientifique en Physique, Chimie et Sciences des matériaux. Des recherches exhaustives sont actuellement menées pour améliorer l’efficacité photocatalytique de certaines classes de matériaux photoactifs connus, et pour développer la synthèse de nouveaux matériaux fonctionnels. Dans ce contexte, les semiconducteurs oxydes photoactifs à base de vanadates de bismuth (BiVO4) possédant une bande électronique au milieu du spectre visible, offrent une sérieuse alternative aux photocatalyseurs classiques efficaces (TiO2, ZnO) dont la photo-excitation requiert uniquement la fraction UV du spectre solaire. Le travail effectué dans le cadre de cette thèse est donc dédié aux matériaux à base BiVO4 sous forme d’architectures mésoporeuses ou d’assemblages hybrides associant des groupes organiques à transfert de charges.Deux contributions majeures ont été développées dont la première portant sur la réalisation expérimentale d’architectures mésoporeuses inédites, fonctionnalisées par des groupes organiques sensibilisateurs et l’étude de leurs propriétés électroniques et optiques en vue d’optimiser leurs efficacités photocatalytiques. La deuxième partie porte sur des simulations numériques de nanostructures hybrides par des approches exploitant la méthode DFT, ab-initio ou des modèles de chimie quantique. Des systèmes modèles ont été construits associant des nanoclusters (NC) et des groupes organiques (GO). Les propriétés électroniques et optiques ainsi que les caractéristiques structurelles et vibrationnelles des systèmes (NC-GO) ont été déterminées et confrontées aux données expérimentales. Les phénomènes de transfert de charges impliqués entre les groupes organiques et la structure inorganique ont été caractérisés ainsi que leur rôle dans l’efficacité des réponses photo-catalytiques des systèmes hybrides. / The search for new materials as photocatalysts invisible light for the depollution of the environment (waters, atmospheres) is a very active field of research and attracts the interest of a large scientific community in Physics, Chemistry and Materials Science. Recent research developpements are conducted to improve the photocatalytic efficiency of certain classes of known photoactive materials, and to develop the synthesis of new functional materials. In this context, photoactive oxide semiconductors based on bismuth vanadate (BiVO4) having an electronic band in the middle of the visible spectrum, offer a serious alternative to efficient conventional photocatalysts (TiO2, ZnO) whose photo-excitation requires only the UV fraction of the solar spectrum.The work done in this thesis is therefore dedicated toBiVO4-based materials in the form of mesoporous architectures or hybrid assemblies associating organic groups with charge transfer processes. Two major contributions have been developed, one of which is the experimental realization of novel mesoporous architectures, functionalized by sensitizing organic groups and the study of their electronic and optical properties in order to optimize their photocatalytic efficiencies. The second part deals with numerical simulations of hybrid nanostructures using approaches as the DFT method, ab-initio or quantum chemistry codes. Model systems have been constructed associating BiVO4nanoclusters (NC) and organic groups (GO). The electronic and optical properties as well as the structural and vibrational characteristics of the systems (NC-GO) were determined and compared with the experimental data. The charge transfer phenomena involved between the organic groups and the inorganic structure were characterized as well as their role in the efficiency of photo-catalytic responses of hybrid systems.

Neste trabalho, materiais fotocrômicos foram preparados pela imobilização de um heteropolioxometalato do tipo Keggin, fosfotungstato [PW12O40]3- (HPW) em uma matriz híbrida do tipo Ormosil (do inglês Organically Modified Silicates). Estudou-se o impacto da adição dos cátions divalentes Zn2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+ e Ba2+ sobre as propriedades dos filmes de Ormosil-Fosfotungstato. Os materiais foram preparados pelo método sol-gel e depositados na forma de filmes em diferentes substratos pela técnica de dip-coating. A formação da rede híbrida de organosilicato e a presença do [PW12O40]3- com sua estrutura de Keggin intacta nos materiais foram comprovadas pelas técnicas de espectroscopia vibracional (FTIR e Raman). Os difratogramas de raios-X das amostras de xerogéis demonstram que os materiais apresentam caráter semicristalino, sendo que um pico na região de 2θ<10° sugere a formação de unidades discretas de octasilsesquioxanos e/ou lamelas de silicato. Estudos de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão revelaram que a adição dos cátions durante a síntese induz a precipitação de nano-aglomerados constituídos de HPW e dos cátions dopantes. A análise do XANES na borda K do Zn sugere que os cátions dopantes Zn2+ estão associados aos heteropoliânions em aglomerados do sal [Zn(OH2)6]x/2Hx-3PW12O40. A imobilização destes aglomerados na rede de organosilicato durante a deposição dos filmes acarreta na preparação de filmes com maior quantidade incorporada de fosfotungstato, como demonstrado pela análise de XRF. A formação dos aglomerados é favorecida pela presença dos cátions maiores, sendo que a adição do Ba2+, que possui maior raio iônico dentre os cátions aqui estudados, permite a incorporação de quase sete vezes mais fosfotungstatp no filme de Ormosil. Essa maior incorporação dea espécie fotoativa nos filmes híbridos se reflete no aumento resposta fotocrômica dos filmes dopados de 35% (amostra dopada com Mg2+) até 685% (amostra dopada com Ba2+). Assim, a adição dos cátions, sobretudo daqueles com maior raio iônico, durante a síntese sol-gel do nanocompósito Ormosil-fosfotungstato representa uma estratégia simples e bastante reprodutível para a preparação de filmes com propriedades fotocrômicas aprimoradas. A elevada resposta fotocrômica dos filmes dopados os torna bons candidatos a serem aplicados como dosímetros colorimétricos da radiação UV. / In this study photohromic materials wer prepared by the entrapment of the Keggin heteropoyoxometalate phosphoungstate [PW12O40]3 (HPW) in a Ormosil (Organically Modified Silicates) hybrid matrix. We evaluated the impact of the addition of the divalent cations Zn2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+ on the properties of Ormosil-phosphotungstate films. The materials were prepared by sol-gel route and deposited as thin films on different substrates by dip coating method. The formation of the hybrid organosilicate network and the presence of the Keggin heteropolianion [PW12O40]3- were confirmed by FTIR and Raman vibrational spectroscopies. The x-ray diffractograms of the xerogels samples indicated that the materials present semi-crystalline behavior. A broad diffraction peak in the 2θ<10° region pointsto the possible formation octasilsesquioxane discrete units and/or silicate lamellae. Transmission electron microscopy studies revealed that the cations addition during the sol-gel synthesis induces the precipitation of nano-agglomerates composed of HPW and the doping cations. Zn K-edge XANES analysis suggests that the Zn2+ doping cations are associated to the heteropolianions forming [Zn(OH2)6]x/2Hx-3PW12O40 salt agglomerates. The entrapment of these agglomerates in the organosilicate network during dip-coating deposition results in the preparation of films with enhanced incorporation of phosphotungstate as demonstrated by XRF analysis. Ba2+ doping enhances in almost seven times the amount of incorporated phosphotungstate. This behavior is explained by the fact that as the solubility of polyoxometalate salts greatly decreases with the increase counter cation size, the formation of the agglomerates is favored in the presence of the larger cations (Sr2+ and Ba2+). The enhanced incorporation of the photoactive specie reflects on the phtochromic response of the doped hybrud films, wich increases in the range of 35% (Mg2+ doped sample) to 685% (Ba2+ doped sample). Therefore, the addition of the cations during sol-gel synthesis of the Ormosil-phosphotungstate nanocomposite represents a simple and reproducible strategy for the preparation of films with enhanced photochromic properties. These highly photochromic hybrid films are promising candidates for the design of practical UV-sensing devices and dosimeters.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:29:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2010-02-22Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:58:40Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 lopes_l_me_araiq.pdf: 1902911 bytes, checksum: 7ca749f9257ee3cf3888d8317ab4ddb4 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / As condições de preparação de matrizes híbridas siloxano0polióxido de etileno (POE) e siloxano0polióxido de propileno (POP) contendo fármacos foram estabelecidas nessa dissertação. A capacidade de liberação do diclofenaco de sódio por essas matrizes foi estudada a partir de curvas de liberação obtidas em meio aquoso. A caracterização das amostras foi realizada utilizando0se as técnicas de DSC, TG0DTA, DMA, DRX, SAXS, RMN do 13 C, 29 Si e do 23 Na e espectroscopia Raman. O estudo de liberação revelou que é possível controlar a velocidade de saída do fármaco a partir da variação da massa molecular da cadeia polimérica e da concentração do diclofenaco de sódio ou da combinação de precursores híbridos de diferentes classes. As medidas de SAXS “in situ” mostraram que o intumescimento é acompanhado por um relaxamento da matriz polimérica, conduzindo a um afastamento dos grupos siloxano constituintes da molécula. Esse relaxamento também é observado quando se acrescenta fármaco à matriz híbrida polimérica. As medidas de DSC indicaram a existência de interações entre as matrizes híbridas POE e o diclofenaco, mudanças de cristalinidade da fase polimérica e, quando associadas a medidas de TG0DTA e DMA, mostraram que as matrizes híbridas apresentam elevada estabilidade térmica e mecânica. Os espectros de RMN revelaram que a matriz híbrida possui elevado grau de policondensação, que o fármaco se apresenta de forma dissociada dentro da matriz, e que as amostras contendo alta concentração de fármaco apresentam aumento na rigidez da parte polimérica da matriz. Além disso, foi possível definir as regiões de interação das moléculas de diclofenaco de sódio com a matriz polimérica com associação da espectroscopia Raman / The preparation conditions of siloxane poly(ethylene oxide) PEO and siloxane poly(propylene oxide) PPO hybrid matrixes containing drugs have been established in this work. The ability of these matrixes to release sodium diclefenac (SDF) was studied from release profiles in aqueous medium. The samples characterization was performed from DSC, TG0DTA, DMA, XRD, SAXS, ¹³C, ² 9 Si and ²³Na NMM and Raman meassurements. The release study revealed that the drugs flux release can be controlled by the polymer molecular weight, the SDF concentration or by combining hybrid precursors of different class. In situ SAXS measurements have shown that swelling is followed by matrix relaxation, giving rise to more separated siloxane groups in the polymeric moities. This relaxation is also observed as drug is loaded in the hybrid matrix. DSC measurements have indicated both the presence of interactions between POE hybrid matrix and SDF, and change in the polymer phase crystallinity. Moreover when these measurements were, associated to TG0DTA and DMA results, they have shown that hybrid matrix presents both high thermal and mechanical stability. The NMR study revealed that matrix shows high polycondensation degree, the drug is loaded insideis in its dissociated form and samples containing the highest tested SDF concentration present more rigid polymer moities. Moreover, the regions responsible for matrix and SDF molecules interaction were determined by associating the Raman results.