<p>Konvergerande ekonomier har gett upphov till nya behov såsom ett internationellt standardiserat redovisningssystem. I EU gäller sedan den första januari 2005 för noterade företag International Accounting Standards Boards (IASBs) system kallat IFRS. Detta regelsystem styr bland annat vilken information som företag ska lämna kring sina finansiella instrument. Just dessa regler är dock i en utvecklingsfas, vilket ledit till att företag för 2005 års årsredovisningar fått välja mellan att redovisa efter den äldre standarden IAS 32 eller den nyare vid namn IFRS 7. Svenska storbanker har genomgående valt att redovisa efter den nyare standarden.</p><p>Trots att införandet av IFRS 7 till stor del är motiverat av en strävan efter att öka användares förståelse för hur finansiella instrument påverka företags exponering för finansiella risker så varnas det för att 2005 års årsredovisningar inte alltid blir jämförbara, då bland annat på grund av den valfrihet som företag har. Hur yttrar sig då denna valfrihet? Frågan vi ställer oss är: Hur följer de företag som valt att redovisa efter IFRS 7 de nya upplysningskrav som ställts på dem?</p><p>Empiri har inhämtats från fyra svenska storbankers årsredovisningar för år 2005 med fokus på de nya upplysningskraven, som lokaliserades inom områdena kreditrisk, likviditetsrisk samt marknadsrisker. Detta har analyserats utifrån de kvalitativa egenskaper som IASB anser vara de viktigaste i finansiella rapporter vilka är begriplighet, relevans, tillförlitlighet och jämförbarhet.</p><p>Bankernas upplysningar inom de aktuella områdena mötte i stort standardens krav väl. Anmärkningsvärt är den variation i detaljrikedom i beskrivningen av erhållna säkerheter och att två av fyra banker inte följer rekommendationer enligt IFRS 7 när det gäller löptidsanalyser för finansiella skulder. Störst likhet mellan bankenas upplysningar fanns inom området marknadsrisker.</p>

Konvergerande ekonomier har gett upphov till nya behov såsom ett internationellt standardiserat redovisningssystem. I EU gäller sedan den första januari 2005 för noterade företag International Accounting Standards Boards (IASBs) system kallat IFRS. Detta regelsystem styr bland annat vilken information som företag ska lämna kring sina finansiella instrument. Just dessa regler är dock i en utvecklingsfas, vilket ledit till att företag för 2005 års årsredovisningar fått välja mellan att redovisa efter den äldre standarden IAS 32 eller den nyare vid namn IFRS 7. Svenska storbanker har genomgående valt att redovisa efter den nyare standarden. Trots att införandet av IFRS 7 till stor del är motiverat av en strävan efter att öka användares förståelse för hur finansiella instrument påverka företags exponering för finansiella risker så varnas det för att 2005 års årsredovisningar inte alltid blir jämförbara, då bland annat på grund av den valfrihet som företag har. Hur yttrar sig då denna valfrihet? Frågan vi ställer oss är: Hur följer de företag som valt att redovisa efter IFRS 7 de nya upplysningskrav som ställts på dem? Empiri har inhämtats från fyra svenska storbankers årsredovisningar för år 2005 med fokus på de nya upplysningskraven, som lokaliserades inom områdena kreditrisk, likviditetsrisk samt marknadsrisker. Detta har analyserats utifrån de kvalitativa egenskaper som IASB anser vara de viktigaste i finansiella rapporter vilka är begriplighet, relevans, tillförlitlighet och jämförbarhet. Bankernas upplysningar inom de aktuella områdena mötte i stort standardens krav väl. Anmärkningsvärt är den variation i detaljrikedom i beskrivningen av erhållna säkerheter och att två av fyra banker inte följer rekommendationer enligt IFRS 7 när det gäller löptidsanalyser för finansiella skulder. Störst likhet mellan bankenas upplysningar fanns inom området marknadsrisker.

Concurrently with higher demands on comparability between companies, all Swedish listed parent companies are guilty to apply international accounting standards, IFRS/IAS, no later than January 1, 2005. In this thesis IFRS 7 Financial instruments: Disclosures, that treats information about financial instruments, is investigated. IFRS 7 aims to establish a good international standard for disclosures about financial instruments. The purpose of this thesis is to study differences in the interpretation of IFRS 7 Financial instruments: Disclosures between Swedish life insurance companies, problems – if any – that associate with the recommendation, the recommendation’s effect on accounting and the attitudes towards IFRS amongst the Swedish life insurance companies. The thesis is based on a qualitative method and the conclusion of the thesis is that the life insurance companies find it tricky to decide how the accounting shall be designed in compliance with IFRS 7. Almost all information needed already exists. The problem rather relates to the design of the accounting. Further more, the companies read the recommendation with different eyes and define different users of annual reports, that creates different interpretations. Balance- and income statements will be less affected of IFRS 7, while notes and disclosures will grow. Finally, the attitudes towards IFRS vary alot between life insurance companies.

Due to the apparent global economic conditions, at the end of 2008, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) issued amendments to IAS 39 Financial instruments: recognition and measurement and IFRS 7 Financial instruments: disclosures in October and November, 2008. The amendments allow banks to reclassify their non-derivative financial instruments in rare circumstances. This thesis investigates whether banks in the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden) reclassify financial instruments, in their financial statements of 2008 and 2009. The result of the study shows that 47% of the sample Nordic banks reclassified financial instruments in 2008 and 12% in 2009. All banks increased their net profit as a result of reclassifying financial instruments in 2008. The return on equity (ROE) increased significantly compared to whether the banks would not had reclassified their financial instruments. Tendencies found among the sample Nordic banks are that larger and less profitable banks used the possibility to reclassify financial instruments to a greater extent. Because none of the banks made losses on their choice to reclassify in 2008, the conclusion is that the opportunity given due to the amendments are mostly used by the banks to enhance the net income and the key ratio ROE. This shows that management decisions are short-term. This also indicates that the amendments may be misused by management to enhance current profit for their own benefit. The thesis also concludes that the departure from fair-value as the valuation method for financial instruments, due to recent massive critic, is unlikely.

<p>Due to the apparent global economic conditions, at the end of 2008, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) issued amendments to IAS 39 <em>Financial instruments: recognition and measurement </em>and IFRS 7 <em>Financial instruments: disclosures</em> in October and November, 2008. The amendments allow banks to reclassify their non-derivative financial instruments in rare circumstances. This thesis investigates whether banks in the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden) reclassify financial instruments, in their financial statements of 2008 and 2009.</p><p>The result of the study shows that 47% of the sample Nordic banks reclassified financial instruments in 2008 and 12% in 2009. All banks increased their net profit as a result of reclassifying financial instruments in 2008. The return on equity (ROE) increased significantly compared to whether the banks would not had reclassified their financial instruments. Tendencies found among the sample Nordic banks are that larger and less profitable banks used the possibility to reclassify financial instruments to a greater extent. Because none of the banks made losses on their choice to reclassify in 2008, the conclusion is that the opportunity given due to the amendments are mostly used by the banks to enhance the net income and the key ratio ROE. This shows that management decisions are short-term. This also indicates that the amendments may be misused by management to enhance current profit for their own benefit. The thesis also concludes that the departure from fair-value as the valuation method for financial instruments, due to recent massive critic, is unlikely.</p>

Bakgrund: Krav på ökad information och transparens i årsredovisningar har varit ett debatterat ämne de senaste åren. International Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS) har uppmärksammats med anledning av de ökad krav på upplysningar som standarden ställer däribland genom reglerna i IFRS 7 Finansiella Instrument: Upplysningar. Användandet av IFRS 7 blev lag år 2007 och gäller vid upprättande av en koncernredovisning. Kraven i IFRS 7 syftar till att visa företags hantering av finansiella instrument och därmed öka redovisningens transparens. Med anledning av de ökade krav som ställs på företag vill denna studie se hur noterade bolag har anpassat och förändrat sin redovisning enligt standarden.    Syfte: Studiens syfte är att analysera bolag noterade på OMX Nordic Exchange Stockholm Large Cap och deras redovisning enligt IFRS 7 för att se om någon förändring skett i mängden upplysningar som lämnats i årsredovisningar för år 2010 jämfört med år 2007. Metod: Den kvantitativa metoden har använts för att genomföra undersökningen. Den positivistiska inriktningen har varit i fokus då antaganden som gjorts på förhand blivit erkända eller förkastade genom en objektiv granskning av de kvantitativa data som samlats in. I undersökningen ingår 37 bolag och totalt har 74 årsredovisningar granskats. Följande punkter valdes ut och undersöktes sedan i de aktuella årsredovisningarna: Punkt 8 Rapport över finansiell ställning, Punkt 20 Rapport över totalresultat, Punkt 33 Kvalitativa upplysningar, Punkt 36-37 Kreditrisk, Punkt 39 Likviditetsrisk och Punkt 40-42 Marknadsrisk. Materialet som samlats in har förts in i kodningstabeller skapade i SPSS för att sedan analyseras. Slutsats: Det har sedan införandet av IFRS 7 år 2007 skett en förändring i redovisningen enligt de undersökta punkterna. Mängden ord som redovisas i samband med de undersökta punkterna har i årsredovisningarna för år 2010 ökat jämfört med mängden ord som redovisades år 2007. En ökning har också skett med avseende på antalet punkter som följs fullt ut. Flera av bolagen har också gjort någon typ av ändring beträffande placering, framställning, rubrik, borttagning eller tillägg av information vid redovisning enligt IFRS 7 år 2010. / Background: Requirements for increased information and transparency in annual reports has in recent years been a debated topic. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) has been a discussed standard in response to the amount of disclosure requirements it contains. IFRS 7 Financial Instruments: Disclosures is one standard included in IFRS which since year 2007 requires listed companies to report their management of financial instruments and thereby increase the transparency. IFRS 7 was standardized in the year 2007 for companies that prepare consolidated financial statements. Due to the increased demands placed on listed companies this study wants to see how the companies have adapted and changed their accounting in accordance with the standard. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to analyze public companies listed on OMX Nordic Exchange Stockholm Large Cap and their accounting in accordance with IFRS 7 in order to see if any changes are made in the amount of information provided in the financial statements for the year 2010 compared to 2007. Methodology: The quantitative method has been used to conduct this study and the positivistic objective has been in focus. The study sample included 37 companies and a total of 74 annual reports. The following parts were selected from IFRS 7 and examined in the annual reports: Paragraph 8 Balance sheet, Paragraph 20 Income statement and equity, Paragraph 33 Qualitative disclosures, Paragraph 36-37 Credit risk, Paragraph 39 Liquidity risk and Paragraph 40-42 Market risk. The information collected from the annual reports have been put in to a coding system created in SPSS and then analyzed.       Conclusion: Since the standardization of IFRS 7 in year 2007 there has been a change in the way listed companies account in accordance with the examined parts. The amount of words related to the examined parts in the annual reports of year 2010 has increased compared to the amount of words disclosed in year 2007. The study also shows that more of the examined parts are accounted for. Several of the investigated companies have also made changes regarding the placement and the presentation of the information. Change of headline and removal of information also occurred. Additionally some companies added new information

Submitted by Leandro Farias Aguiar (leandro.aguiar@itau-unibanco.com.br) on 2014-12-18T21:11:35Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Leandro Farias Aguiar.pdf: 1287260 bytes, checksum: 097e9c6f1a265980f82a58af67b081c8 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Luiza Holme (ana.holme@fgv.br) on 2014-12-19T11:49:47Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Leandro Farias Aguiar.pdf: 1287260 bytes, checksum: 097e9c6f1a265980f82a58af67b081c8 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-19T13:52:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Leandro Farias Aguiar.pdf: 1287260 bytes, checksum: 097e9c6f1a265980f82a58af67b081c8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-11-25 / Ao se reportar resultados voláteis e, sem a devida evidenciação contábil (disclosure), pode-se transmitir uma imagem negativa aos investidores e levantar dúvidas em relação aos resultados futuros, a transparência e a capacidade de gerenciamento do risco por parte dos gestores das instituições financeiras. Nas últimas décadas, a utilização da contabilidade de hedge para a gestão do risco e resultado tem estado em evidência nos grandes bancos do Brasil e do exterior. Isto ocorre pois é onde se dá a convergência das demonstrações financeiras tanto em 2005 na Europa quanto em 2010 no Brasil para o novo padrão contábil internacional (IFRS) aplicado pelo IASB. Este padrão tem exigido dos bancos grandes esforços para estar em conformidade com as novas regras estabelecidas. Nesta mesma lógica, enquanto a contabilidade de hedge nos bancos assume um papel de destaque na gestão dos riscos e resultados; a divulgação precisa e concisa das demonstrações financeiras fornece aos acionistas, investidores e demais usuários importantes informações sobre o desempenho e a condução do negócio. Isto proporciona ao mercado uma melhor condição de avaliar os riscos envolvidos e de estimar os resultados futuros para a tomada de decisão de investimento. Dentro deste contexto, foi avaliado a qualidade e o grau de evidenciação das demonstrações contábeis dos principais bancos brasileiros e europeus aos requisitos do IFRS 7, IFRS 9 e outros mais de elaboração do próprio autor. Todos esses requisitos referem-se à divulgação de informações qualitativas e quantitativas pertinentes a contabilidade de hedge. Portanto, estão associados a estratégias de gestão de risco e resultado. A avaliação do grau de evidenciação das demonstrações financeiras ao IFRS 7 e IFRS 9 foi feita através de um estudo exploratório onde se analisou as notas explicativas em IFRS dos dez maiores bancos no Brasil e na Europa pelo critério 'tamanho dos ativos'. Os resultados obtidos neste estudo indicam que 59,6% das instituições analisadas cumprem as exigências do IFRS7. Outra descoberta é que o índice de cumprimento dos bancos brasileiros é maior que os bancos europeus; 68,3% vs. 50,8%. Em relação ao IFRS 9 o percentual é de apenas 23% o que é explicado pelo fato da norma ainda não estar em vigor em ambas as regiões onde poucas instituições tem se antecipado de forma voluntária para atendê-la. A avaliação da qualidade das notas explicativas referente ao hedge contábil foi feita de maneira discricionária através da observação das informações prestadas para atender aos requisitos do IFRS 7 e 9 e dos demais requisitos adicionados pelo autor. Os resultados obtidos indicam que as notas carecem de maior detalhamento dos instrumentos de hedge utilizados, bem como os objetivos de cada hedge, para dar maior transparência ao usuário da informação sobre os riscos protegidos nos respectivos balanços. O crescimento do volume de informações prestadas nas notas explicativas dos grandes bancos brasileiros e europeus após a adoção do IFRS não configurou um aumento proporcional do conteúdo informacional, prevalecendo, ainda, a forma sobre a essência. Este movimento abre espaço para discussões futuras com os agentes de mercado sobre o tamanho e o conteúdo informacional adequado nas notas explicativas, com o intuito de buscar um equilíbrio entre o custo e o benefício da divulgação da informação sob a ótica da relevância e da materialidade. / When reporting volatile results without the proper accounting disclosure, you can convey a negative image to investors and raise doubts in relation to future results, transparency and risk management capacity on the part of managers of financial institutions. In recent decades, the use of hedge accounting for risk management and result has been in evidence in the large banks of Brazil and abroad. This occurs because it is where the convergence of both financial statements in 2005 in Europe as in 2010 in Brazil for the new international accounting standard (IFRS) applied by the IASB. This pattern has required large banks ' efforts to comply with the new rules. In this same logic, while the hedge accounting assumes an important role in managing of risks and results; an accurate and concise disclosure of the financial statements provides to shareholders, investors and other users, important information about the performance and the conduct of business. This gives the market a better condition to assess the risks involved and to estimate the future results to investment decision-making. Within this context, it was evaluated the quality and the degree of evidencing of the financial statements of the main European and Brazilian banks to the requirements of IFRS 7 and IFRS 9 and other more elaborated by author. All these requirements relate to disclosure of qualitative and quantitative information pertinent to hedge accounting. Therefore are associated with risk and result management strategies. The assessment of the degree of disclosure of the financial statements to IFRS 7 and IFRS 9 was made through an exploratory study which examined the explanatory notes under IFRS of the ten largest banks in Brazil and in Europe by the criterion 'asset size'. The results obtained in this study indicate that 59.6% of the analyzed institutions meet the requirements of IFRS7. Another discovery is that the index of performance of Brazilian banks is greater than European banks; 68.3% vs. 50.8%. In relation to IFRS 9 the percentage is only 23%, which is explained by the fact that the standard has not yet come into force in both regions where few institutions has been anticipated voluntarily to server her. The quality evaluation of the explanatory notes relating to hedge accounting was made discretionary manner through observation of information supplied to meet the requirements of IFRS 7 and 9 and of other requirements added by the author. The results obtained indicate that the notes require further details of hedging instruments used and the objectives of each hedge, to give greater transparency to the user information about the risks protected in their balance sheets. The growth in the volume of information provided in the explanatory notes of the great European and Brazilian banks after the adoption of the IFRS did not configure a proportional increase of informational content, still prevail, the form over the essence. This move makes room for future discussions with the market players about the proper size and informational content in the explanatory notes, in order to seek a balance between the cost and the benefit of disclosure of information from the perspective of relevance and materiality.

Submitted by Cyntia Yamada (cyntia.yyamada@gmail.com) on 2018-07-04T23:13:12Z No. of bitstreams: 1 TA - Cyntia Yamada_Ajustado_pos defesa.pdf: 922937 bytes, checksum: 7a7ba1679fce4e6dbe19ec019b91ad51 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Simone de Andrade Lopes Pires (simone.lopes@fgv.br) on 2018-07-04T23:27:52Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TA - Cyntia Yamada_Ajustado_pos defesa.pdf: 922937 bytes, checksum: 7a7ba1679fce4e6dbe19ec019b91ad51 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Suzane Guimarães (suzane.guimaraes@fgv.br) on 2018-07-05T12:56:38Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TA - Cyntia Yamada_Ajustado_pos defesa.pdf: 922937 bytes, checksum: 7a7ba1679fce4e6dbe19ec019b91ad51 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-07-05T12:56:38Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 TA - Cyntia Yamada_Ajustado_pos defesa.pdf: 922937 bytes, checksum: 7a7ba1679fce4e6dbe19ec019b91ad51 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018 / A adoção das Normas Internacionais de Contabilidade ocorreu em diferentes momentos: Brasil a partir de 2008, Europa em 2005 e Chile em 2013. Entretanto, mesmo em momentos diferentes, a padronização das práticas contábeis internacionais foi resultado da exigência de informações que permitissem aos investidores e credores a comparação e convergência de resultados em nível global. Por essa razão, o presente estudo tem como objetivo identificar se a demanda por tal informação padronizada foi efetivamente atendida, especificamente no que tange ao IFRS 7 (Risco Operacional de Operações de Crédito). Para isso, serão analisados 45 bancos comerciais distribuídos no Brasil, Chile, Itália e Grã-Bretanha. O Índice de Divulgação foi determinado com base no Relatório 20-F (bancos com ações negociadas nas Bolsas de Valores Local e de Nova York - OTC e ADR NYSE) ou Demonstrações Financeiras IFRS (ações negociadas somente na Bolsa de Valores local) em 2016. Para diferentes índices de divulgação, consideramos: Estatística Descritiva e correlações de variáveis contínuas (Materialidade: Operações de Crédito / Ativos Totais e Provisão para Perdas com Operações de Crédito / Total de Operações de Crédito; Porte dos Bancos: Ativos Totais) e variáveis qualitativas com aplicação do teste t de Student (ações negociadas na Bolsa de Valores, Tradição Legal e Localização (região desenvolvida e em desenvolvimento)). Descobrimos que o Índice de Divulgação é mais alto nos países desenvolvidos e comerciais em Nova York (OTC ou ADR NYSE) e que os bancos com uma tradição legal common law tendem a ser mais transparente e fornecer mais informações do que os países civil law. Portanto, a adoção do IFRS é reforçada com variáveis culturais positivas e quando os bancos precisam atender ao mercado altamente exigente e com forte proteção para investidores e credores. / The adoption of International Accounting Standards was at different times: Brazil as of 2008, Europe in 2005 and Chile in 2013. However, even at different times, the standardization of international accounting practices was the result of the requirement for information that would allow investors and creditor comparisons and convergence of results at the global level. For this reason, the present study aims to identify whether the demand for such standardized information was actually met, specifically regarding the IFRS 7 (Operational Risk of Credit Operations).To do so, we will analyse 45 commercial banks distributed in Brazil, Chile, Italy and Great Britain. The Disclosure Index was determined based on the 20-F Report (banks with shares traded on the Local and New York Stock Exchange - OTC and ADR NYSE) or IFRS Financial Statements (shares traded on the local Stock Exchange only) in 2016. For different disclosure indexes we consider: Descriptive Statistics and correlations of continuous variables (Materiality: Credit Operations / Total Assets and Provision for Losses with Loan Operations / Total Credit Operations; Size of banks: Total Assets) and qualitative variables with application of Student's t test (shares traded only on the local Stock Exchange, Legal Tradition and Location (developed and developing region)).We have found that the Disclosure Index is higher in developed and trading countries in New York (OTC or ADR NYSE) and that banks with a common law tradition tend to be more transparent and provide more information than countries with civil law. Therefore, adoption of IFRS is strengthened with positive cultural variables and when banks need to attend to the highly demanding market and with strong protection for investors and creditors.

Risk, som kan definieras som möjligheten att något oönskat ska hända, är idag ett omdiskuterat ämne. Det har blivit allt viktigare att företag kommunicerar information om sina risker och hur de hanteras. Det har visat sig att banker är mycket utsatta för risk och att banksektorn är instabil. De finansiella risker som banker ofta är utsatta för är kreditrisk, marknadsrisk, likviditetsrisk och operativ risk. På senare tid, och framförallt till följd av den senaste finanskrisen, har det tillkommit flertalet standarder som reglerar för en mer detaljerad riskupplysning. Kraven på riskinformation i årsredovisningen har därmed ökat och banker rapporterar mer om sina risker nu än tidigare. IFRS 7 och Basel är internationella regelverk som reglerar upplysning av riskrelaterad information. Regelverkens syfte är att förbättra riskupplysningen och att stärka den finansiella stabiliteten. Risken för att hamna i en ny finansiell kris minskar till följd av ökad öppenhet. Inom riskhantering har ramverket ERM tillkommit, som vägleder företag i riskhanteringsprocessen. Vidare kan bankers riskinformation i årsredovisningen skilja sig, både mellan länder och mellan banker inom ett land.Syftet med studien är att undersöka svenska och brittiska marknadsnoterade bankers kommunikation av riskinformation i årsredovisningen och studera om den har förändrats från år 2006 till år 2013 och i så fall hur. Studien syftar också till att analysera hur förändringen skiljer sig mellan olika banker i Sverige och i Storbritannien. Slutligen syftar studien till att studera hur förändringen skiljer sig mellan de två länderna, som i grunden anses härstamma från olika redovisningstraditioner. För att uppfylla syftet med studien genomförs en kvalitativ innehållsanalys av årsredovisningar från de fyra största bankerna i Sverige respektive Storbritannien. Därefter undersöks hur informationen förändrats för varje bank och sedan genomförs en komparativ studie, där bankerna respektive de två länderna jämförs.Studiens resultat visar att det har skett en förändring i riskkommunikation i årsredovisningen från år 2006 till år 2013 för samtliga studerade banker, då upplysningen om risker och riskhantering har ökat. De svenska bankerna skiljer sig i förändringen i högre grad än de brittiska. Det är svårt att se ett samband bland de svenska bankerna, medan de brittiska i stort sett följer samma mönster i förändringen. Vidare visar studien att de brittiska bankerna har genomgått en större förändring och att de har förändrats i högre takt än de svenska bankerna mellan de studerade åren. Det visar tydligt att de brittiska bankerna tillhör den anglosaxiska redovisningstraditionen och i jämförelse kan de svenska bankerna relateras till den kontinentaleuropeiska traditionen. Studien ger dock belägg för att de svenska bankernas riskkommunikation närmar sig den anglosaxiska traditionen, eftersom de har förändrats mellan de studerade åren och eftersom de har blivit mer transparenta. Vidare har både de brittiska och de svenska bankerna blivit mer transparenta när det gäller information om risk i årsredovisningen, vilket går i linje med legitimitetsteorin och intressentteorin. / Program: Civilekonomprogrammet

The implementation of International Accounting Standard 32 Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation (lAS 32), International Accounting Standard 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement (lAS 39) and International Financial Reporting Standard 7 Financial Instruments: Disclosures (IFRS 7) by developing countries has been met with mixed reactions largely due to the extensive use of the fair value concept by the three accounting standards. The use of the fair value concept in developing countries has proved to be a significant challenge due to either a Jack of formal capital market systems or very thinly traded capital markets. This study investigates the obstacles to determining fair values of equity share investments, government bonds and corporate bonds, treasury bills and loan advances in Mozambique. The study was done through a combination of literature review and empirical research using a questionnaire. The trading statistics of the financial instruments on the Mozambique Stock Exchange and the prospectuses of bonds were used. The empirical research was carried out using a type of non-probability sampling technique called purposive sampling. A subcategory of purposive sampling called expert sampling was used to select the eventual sample which was composed of people with specialised knowledge on the capital market system in Mozambique. The results of the empirical research were analysed using pie charts to summarise the responses. The research concluded that the Mozambique Stock Exchange is an inactive market for financial instruments characterised by thin trading in both equity shares and bonds. The estimation of fair values evidenced by observable market transactions is therefore impossible. The absence of credit rating agencies in Mozambique presents a significant challenge in assigning credit risk and pricing financial instruments such as bonds. The research also noted that significant volatility of the main economic indicators such as treasury bills interest rates and inflation made it difficult to determine fair values of financial instruments using financial modelling techniques. Due to the above obstacles to determining fair values of certain financial instruments in Mozambique, the best alternatives are to value these financial instruments at either cost or amortised cost. / Financial Accounting / M. Com. (Accounting)