The research in permanent magnet thin films focuses on the search of new materials and methods to increase the prevalent data storage limit. In the recent past the work towards the application of these films to micro systems have also gained momentum. Materials like samarium cobalt with better magnetic properties and temperature stability are considered to be suitable in this regard. The essential requirement in miniaturization of these films is to deposit them on silicon substrates that can alleviate the micro fabrication process. In this work, an effort has been made to deposit SmCo films with better magnetic properties on silicon substrates. In the deposition of SmCo, the composition of the deposited films and the structural evolution are found to play an important role in determining the magnetic properties. Proper control over these parameters is essential in controlling the magnetic properties of the deposited films. SmCo being a two component material the composition of the films is dependent on the nature of the source and the transport of the material species from source to substrate. On the other hand, structural evolution is dependent on the energetical considerations between the SmCo lattice and substrate lattice. This most often is dominated by the lattice match between the condensing lattice and the substrate lattice. As such Si does not provide good lattice match to SmCo lattice. Hence suitable underlayers are essential in the deposition of these films. Materials like W, Cu, Mo and Cr were used as underlayers. Out of all these Cr is found to provide good lattice match and adhesion to SmCo lattice. Sputtering being the common deposition tool, SmCo could be sputtered either from the elemental targets of Sm and Co or from the compound target of SmCo5. Sputtering of elemental targets of Sm and Co provides the flexibility of varying the composition whereas sputtering from the SmCo alloy target provides to flexibility of controlling the structural evolution by different process parameters. In this work two different techniques namely Facing Target Sputtering (FTS) and Ion Beam Sputter Deposition (IBSD) were followed in depositing SmCo films. In FTS technique, SmCo films were directly deposited on silicon substrates by simultaneous sputtering of samarium and cobalt targets facing each other. This sputtering geometry enabled to achieve films with a wide composition range of 55 – 95 at. % of cobalt in single deposition. The resulting composition variation and material property variation were investigated in terms of process parameters like pressure, temperature, SubstrateTarget Distance (STD) and InterTarget Distance (ITD). The composition distribution of the films was found to be dependent on the thermalisation distances and the mean free path available during the transport. To explain the process and the composition variation, a simulation model based on Monte Carlo method has been employed. The simulated composition variation trends were in good agreement with that of the experimental observations. IBSD, known for its controlled deposition, was employed to deposit both Cr (as an underlayer) and SmCo films. Cr with close epitaxial match with SmCo induces structural evolution in deposited films. The initial growth conditions were found to play a dominant role in the structural evolution of these Cr films. Hence, initial growth conditions were modified by means of oblique incidence and preferential orientation of (200) plane was obtained. With three different angles of incidence, three different surface orientations of Cr films were achieved. These films were then used as structural templates in the deposition of SmCo films. The influence of parameters like composition, impurities, film thickness, beam energy, ion flux, annealing, angles of incidence and underlayer properties on the structural and magnetic properties of SmCo was studied. The structural evolution of SmCo has been found to depend on the structural orientation of Cr underlayers. This followed the structural relation of SmCo(100)||Cr(110)||Si(100) and SmCo(110)||Cr(100)||Si(100). A mixed surface plane orientation was observed in the case of mixed orientation Cr template. The magnetic coercivities were found to increase from 50 Oe to 5000 Oe with the change in the structure of the deposited films.

Photonic crystals (PhCs) are periodic dielectric structures that exhibit a photonic bandgap, i.e., a range of wavelength for which light propagation is forbidden. The special band structure related dispersion properties offer a realm of novel functionalities and interesting physical phenomena. PhCs have been manufactured using semiconductors and other material technologies. However, InP-based materials are the main choice for active devices at optical communication wavelengths. This thesis focuses on two-dimensional PhCs in the InP/GaInAsP/InP material system and addresses their fabrication technology and their physical properties covering both material issues and light propagation aspects. Ar/Cl2 chemically assisted ion beam etching was used to etch the photonic crystals. The etching characteristics including feature size dependent etching phenomena were experimentally determined and the underlying etching mechanisms are explained. For the etched PhC holes, aspect ratios around 20 were achieved, with a maximum etch depth of 5 microns for a hole diameter of 300 nm. Optical losses in photonic crystal devices were addressed both in terms of vertical confinement and hole shape and depth. The work also demonstrated that dry etching has a major impact on the properties of the photonic crystal material. The surface Fermi level at the etched hole sidewalls was found to be pinned at 0.12 eV below the conduction band minimum. This is shown to have important consequences on carrier transport. It is also found that, for an InGaAsP quantum well, the surface recombination velocity increases (non-linearly) by more than one order of magnitude as the etch duration is increased, providing evidence for accumulation of sidewall damage. A model based on sputtering theory is developed to qualitatively explain the development of damage. The physics of dispersive phenomena in PhC structures is investigated experimentally and theoretically. Negative refraction was experimentally demonstrated at optical wavelengths, and applied for light focusing. Fourier optics was used to experimentally explore the issue of coupling to Bloch modes inside the PhC slab and to experimentally determine the curvature of the band structure. Finally, dispersive phenomena were used in coupled-cavity waveguides to achieve a slow light regime with a group index of more than 180 and a group velocity dispersion up to 10^7 times that of a conventional fiber. / QC 20100712

Diese Arbeit befasst sich mit der Nanostrukturierung von magnetischen Schichtsystemen mit Tunnelmagnetowiderstandseffekt (TMR-Effekt), welche in der Form von Nanosäulen in magnetoresistiven Speichern (MRAM) eingesetzt werden. Solche Nanosäulen können zukünftig ebenfalls als Nanoemitter von Mikrowellensignalen eine Rolle spielen. Dabei wird von der Auswahl eines geeigneten TMR-Schichtsystems mit einer MgO-Tunnelbarriere über die Präparation der Nanosäulen mit Seitenisolierung bis hin zum Aufbringen der elektrischen Zuleitungen eine komplette Prozesskette entwickelt und optimiert. Die Strukturen werden mittels optischer Lithographie und Elektronenstrahllithographie definiert, die anschließende Strukturübertragung erfolgt durch Ionenstrahlätzen (teilweise reaktiv) sowie durch Lift-off. Rückmeldung über Erfolg oder Probleme bei der Strukturierung geben Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie (teilweise mit Zielpräparation per Ionenfeinstrahl, FIB), Rasterelektronenmikroskopie sowie die Lichtmikroskopie. Es können so TMR-Nanosäulen mit minimalen Abmessungen von bis zu 69 nm x 71 nm hergestellt werden, von denen Nanosäulen mit Abmessungen von 65 nm x 87 nm grundlegend magneto-elektrisch charakterisiert worden sind. Dies umfasst die Bestimmung des TMR-Effektes und des Widerstandes der Tunnelbarriere (RA-Produkt). Weiterhin wurde das Verhalten der magnetischen Schichten bei größeren Magnetfeldern bis +-200mT sowie das Umschaltverhalten der magnetisch freien Schicht bei verändertem Winkel zwischen magnetischer Vorzugsachse des TMR-Elementes und dem äußeren Magnetfeld untersucht. Der Nachweis des Spin-Transfer-Torque Effektes an den präparierten TMR-Nanosäulen ist im Rahmen dieser Arbeit nicht gelungen, was mit dem zu hohen elektrischen Widerstand der verwendeten Tunnelbarriere erklärt werden kann. Mit dünneren Barrieren konnte der Widerstand gesenkt werden, allerdings führt ein Stromfluss durch diese Barrieren schnell zur Degradation der Barrieren. Weiterführende Arbeiten sollten das Ziel haben, niederohmige und gleichzeitig elektrisch belastbare Tunnelbarrieren in einem entsprechenden TMR-Schichtsystem abzuscheiden. Eine erste Auswahl an Ansatzpunkten dafür aus der Literatur wird im Ausblick gegeben. / This thesis deals with the fabrication of nanopillars with tunnel magnetoresistance effect (TMR-effect), which are used in magnetoresistive memory (MRAM) and may be used as nanooscillators for future near field communication devices. Starting with the selection of a suitable TMR-layer stack with MgO-tunnel barrier, the whole process chain covering the fabrication of the nanopillars, sidewall isolation and preparation of the supply lines on top is developed and optimised. The structures are defined by optical and electron beam lithography, the subsequent patterning is done by ion beam etching (partially reactive) and lift-off. Techniques providing feedback on the nanofabrication are transmission electron microscopy (partially with target preparation by focused ion beam, FIB), scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy. In this way nanopillars with minimal dimensions reaching 69 nm x 71 nm could be fabricated, of which nanopillars with a size of 65 nm x 87 nm were characterized fundamentally with respect to their magnetic and electric properties. This covers the determination of the TMR-effect and the resistance of the tunnel barrier (RA-product). In addition, the behaviour of the magnetic layers under higher magnetic fields (up to +-200mT) and the switching behaviour of the free layer at different angles between the easy axis of the TMR-element and the external magnetic field were investigated. The spin transfer torque effect could not be detected in the fabricated nanopillars due to the high electrical resistance of the tunnel barriers which were used. The resistance could be lowered by using thinner barriers, but this led to a quick degradation of the barrier when a current was applied. Continuative work should focus on the preparation of tunnel barriers in an appropriate TMR-stack being low resistive and electrically robust at the same time. A first selection of concepts and ideas from the literature for this task is given in the outlook.

Metal-Oxide-Silicon Field-Effect-Transistors with a layer of electrically isolated Si nanocrystals (NCs) embedded in the gate oxide are known to improve conventional floating gate flash memories. Data retention, program and erase speeds as well as the memory operation voltages can be substantially improved due to the discrete charge storage in the isolated Si NCs. Using ion beam synthesis, Si NCs can be fabricated along with standard CMOS processing. The optimization of the location and size of ion beam synthesized Si NCs requires a deeper understanding of the mechanisms involved, which determine (i) the built-up of Si supersaturation by high-fluence ion implantation and (ii) NC formation by phase separation. For that aim, process simulations have been conducted that address both aspects on a fundamental level and, on the other hand, are able to avoid tedious experiments. The built-up of a Si supersaturation by high-fluence ion implantation were studied using dynamic binary collision calculations with TRIDYN and have lead to a prediction of Si excess depth profiles in thin gate oxides of a remarkable quality. These simulations include in a natural manner high fluence implantation effects as target erosion by sputtering, target swelling and ion beam mixing. The second stage of ion beam synthesis is modeled with the help of a tailored kinetic Monte Carlo code that combines a detailed kinetic description of phase separation on atomic level with the required degree of abstraction that is necessary to span the timescales involved. Large ensembles of Si NCs were simulated reaching the late stages of NC formation and dissolution at simulation sizes that allowed a direct comparison with experimental studies, e.g. with electron energy loss resolved TEM investigations. These comparisons reveal a nice degree of agreement, e.g. in terms of predicted and observed precipitate morphologies for different ion fluences. However, they also point clearly onto impact of additional external influences as, e.g., the oxidation of implanted Si by absorbed humidity, which was identified with the help of these process simulations. Moreover, these simulations are utilized as a general tool to identify optimum processing regimes for a tailored Si NC formation for NC memories. It is shown that key properties for NC memories as the tunneling distance from the transistor channel to the Si NCs, the NC morphology, size and density can be adjusted accurately despite of the involved degree of self-organization. Furthermore, possible lateral electron tunneling between neighboring Si NCs is evaluated on the basis of the performed kinetic Monte Carlo simulations.

Obwohl Wasserstoff omnipräsent ist, ist seine Analytik anspruchsvoll und es stehen nur wenige analytische Verfahren zur Auswahl. Unter diesen nimmt die auf einer Kernreaktion von Wasserstoff und Stickstoff basierende N-15-Methode einen herausragenden Platz ein. Sie liefert eine ortsaufgelöste Wasserstoffkonzentration bis in den ppm-Bereich in oberflächennahen Schichten (kleiner 2 µm). Gegenstand der Arbeit sind die Darstellung der Theorie der N-15-Kernreaktionsanalyse (NRA), des experimentellen Aufbaus des entsprechenden Strahlrohrs am Ionenbeschleuniger der BAM und der Auswertung der Messergebnisse. Ziel ist die erstmalige Charakterisierung eines Referenzmaterials für die H-Analytik auf Basis von amorphen Silizium (aSi) auf einem Si[100]-Substrat. International wird von den metrologischen Instituten NIST [REE90] und IRMM [VAN87] je ein Referenzmaterial für die Heißextraktion in Form von Titanplättchen angeboten. Diese sind aber für die oberflächennahen Verfahren (NRA, ERDA, GDOES, SIMS) nicht nutzbar, da die oberflächennahe Konzentration von Wasserstoff in Titan nicht konstant ist. Die Homogenität der mittels CVD abgeschiedenen aSi:H-Schichten wurde untersucht. Dazu wurden pro Substrat für ca. 30 Proben die Wasserstofftiefenprofile gemessen, mittels eines innerhalb der Arbeit entstandenen Programms entfaltet und der statischen Auswertung unterzogen. Das Ergebnis waren Mittelwert und Standardabweichung der Wasserstoffkonzentration, sowie ein Schätzer für den Beitrag der Inhomogenität zur Meßunsicherheit. Die Stabilität des potentiellen Referenzmaterials wurde durch die Konstanz der Ergebnisse von Wiederholtungsmessungen der Wasserstoffkonzentrtion während der Applikation einer hohen Dosis von N-15 Ionen bewiesen. In einem internationalen Ringversuch wurde die Rückführbarkeit der Messergebnisse nachgewiesen. Teilnehmer waren 13 Labore aus 7 Ländern. Eingesetzt wurden N-15 und F-19 NRA, ERDA und SIMS. Besonderer Beachtung wurde der Bestimmung der Messunsicherheiten gewidmet. Für die Charakterisierung der aSi:H-Schichten wurden neben der NRA die Weißlichtinterferometrie, Ellipsometrie, Profilometrie und Röngenreflektometrie, sowie die IR- und Ramanspektroskopie genutzt. Die Stöchiometrie des eingesetzten Standardmaterials Kapton wurde mittels NMR-Spekroskopie und CHN-Analyse überprüft. [VAN87] Vandendriessche, S., Marchandise, H., Vandecasteele, C., The certification of hydrogen in titanium CRM No318, Brüssel-Luxembourg,1987 [REE90] Reed, W.P., Certificate of Analysis SRM 352c, Gaithersburg, NIST, 1990

The structural evolution of carbon:transition metal (C:TM) nanocomposite thin films is investigated in two regimes: (i) surface diffusion governed regime occurring during the film growth and (ii) bulk diffusion dominated regime occurring during the post-deposition thermal annealing. C:V, C:Co, and C:Cu nanocomposite films were grown by ion beam co-sputtering. The influence of the metal type, metal content (15-40 at.%), substrate temperature (RT-500°C), and annealing temperature (300-700°C) on the structure and morphology of the composite is studied by the means of elastic recoil detection analysis, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. Vanadium (copper) is in carbidic (metallic) state in the whole temperature range of the study. In contrast, cobalt is in carbidic state up to 300°C and becomes metallic at higher growth temperatures. The nanoparticles in C:V films exhibit a globular shape at RT-500°C, whereas in C:Co and C:Cu films a growth transition from globular to elongated nanoparticles occurs around 300°C. The comparison of the Raman spectroscopy results from carbon reference and C:TM thin films shows that the presence of the metal during growth significantly enhances the formation of sixfold ring carbon clusters at temperatures as low as RT. The enhancement occurs independently of the nanoparticle size, shape, and phase, and metal content, and is related to processes taking place on the nanoparticle surface of the growing film rather than in the bulk. The degree of enhancement depends on the TM type and content. Post-deposition annealing of C:Co and C:Cu films at 700°C causes the metal segregation at the film surface, while no changes upon annealing occur in C:V films. In addition, cobalt brings about the carbon graphitization by a dissolution-diffusion-precipitation mechanism, similar to the metal-mediated crystallization of amorphous silicon or germanium. No graphitization upon annealing occurs in C:V, C:Cu, and carbon reference films. / Die Strukturentwicklung in Kohlenstoff-Übergangsmetall-Nanokompositschichten wird in zwei Bereichen untersucht: (i) im oberflächendiffusionsgesteuerten Bereich während des Schichtwachstums und (ii) im bulkdiffusionsdominierten Bereich während des nachträglichen Temperns. C:V, C:Co und C:Cu Nanokompositschichten wurden durch Ionenstrahl Co-Sputtern hergestellt. Der Einfluss des Metalltyps, des Metallgehalts (15-40 at.%), der Substrattemperatur (RT-500°C) und der Temperatur beim Tempern (300-700°C) auf die Struktur und Morphologie des Komposits wird mittels elastischer Rückstoßteilchen-Analyse, Röntgenbeugung, Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie und Ramanspektroskopie untersucht. Vanadium (Kupfer) ist im gesamten Temperaturbereich der Studie in karbidischem (metallischen) Zustand. Im Gegensatz dazu befindet sich Kobalt bis zu einer Temperatur von 300°C in karbidischem Zustand und wird bei höheren Abscheidetemperaturen metallisch. Die Nanopartikel in C:V Filmen besitzen eine runde Form im Temperaturbereich von RT bis 500°C wohingegen bei den C:Co und C:Cu Filmen ein Übergang von runden zu länglichen Partikeln bei etwa 300°C zu beobachten ist. Der Vergleich der Ramanspektroskopieresultate der Kohlenstoffreferenzproben und der Nanokompositschichten zeigt, dass die Anwesenheit des Metalls während des Schichtwachstums die Bildung von sechsatomigen Kohlenstoffringclustern bei Temperaturen so niedrig wie Raumtemperatur deutlich fördert. Die Erhöhung tritt unabhängig von der Partikelgröße, -form und phase und unabhängig vom Metallgehalt auf, und betrifft eher Prozesse, die auf der Oberfläche der Nanopartikel während des Schichtwachstums stattfinden als im Bulk. Der Grad der Erhöhung hängt vom Metalltyp und -gehalt ab. Nachträgliches Tempern der C:Co und C:Cu Filme bei 700°C führt zur Segregation des Metalls an der Schichtoberfläche während in den C:V Filmen keine Veränderungen durch das Tempern auftreten. Des weiteren kommt es in den C:Co Filmen zur Graphitisierung des Kohlenstoffs durch einen „Lösungs-Diffusions-Ablagerungs“ Mechanismus ähnlich der metallvermittelten Kristallisierung in amorphem Silizium und Germanium. In den C:V, C:Cu und Kohlenstoffreferenzfilmen findet keine Graphitisierung während des Temperns statt.

<p>Photonic crystals (PhCs) are structures periodic in thedielectric constant. They exhibit a photonic bandgap, i.e., arange of wavelengths for which light propagation is forbidden.Engineering of defects in the PhC lattice offers new ways toconfine and guide light. PhCs have been manufactured usingsemiconductors and other material technologies. This thesisfocuses on two-dimensional PhCs etched in InP-based materials.Only recently, such structures were identified as promisingcandidates for the realization of novel and advanced functionsfor optical communication applications.</p><p>The primary focus was on fabrication and characterization ofPhC structures in the InP/GaInAsP/InP material system. Thedemands on fabrication are very high: holes as small as100-300nm in diameter have to be etched at least as deep as 2µm. Thus, different etch processes had to be explored andspecifically developed for InP. We have implemented an etchingprocess based on Ar/Cl₂chemically assisted ion beam etching (CAIBE), thatrepresents the state of the art PhC etching in InP.</p><p>Different building blocks were manufactured using thisprocess. A transmission loss of 10dB/mm for a PhC waveguide, areflection of 96.5% for a 4-row mirror and a record qualityfactor of 310 for a 1D cavity were achieved for this materialsystem. With an etch depth of 4.5 µm, optical loss wasfound to be close to the intrinsic limit. PhC-based opticalfilters were demonstrated using (a) a Fabry-Pérot cavityinserted in a PhC waveguide and (b) a contra-directionalcoupler. Lag effect in CAIBE was utilized positively to realizehigh quality PhC taper sections. Using a PhC taper, a couplingefficiency of 70% was demonstrated from a standard ridgewaveguide to a single line defect PhC waveguide.</p><p>During the course of this work, InP membrane technology wasdeveloped and a Fabry-Pérot cavity with a quality factorof 3200 was demonstrated.</p><p><b>Keywords:</b>photonic crystals, photonic bandgap materials,indium phosphide, dry etching, chemically assisted ion beametching, reactive ion etching, electron beam lithography,photonic integrated circuits, optical waveguides, resonantcavities, optical filtering, finite difference time domain,plane wave expansion.</p>

No description available.

The methods of analysis with a focused ion beam, commonly termed as nuclear microscopy, include quantitative physical processes like PIXE and RBS. The element concentrations in a sample can be quantitatively mapped with a sub-micron spatial resolution and a sub-ppm sensitivity. Its fully quantitative and non-destructive nature makes it particularly suitable for analysing biological samples. The applications in biomedical research are manifold. The iron overload hypothesis in Parkinson\\\'s disease is investigated by a differential analysis of human substantia nigra. The trace element content is quantified in neuromelanin, in microglia cells, and in extraneuronal environment. A comparison of six Parkinsonian cases with six control cases revealed no significant elevation in iron level bound to neuromelanin. In fact, a decrease in the Fe/S ratio of Parkinsonian neuromelanin was measured, suggesting a modification in its iron binding properties. Drosophila melanogaster, or the fruit fly, is a widely used model organism in neurobiological experiments. The electrolyte elements are quantified in various organs associated with the olfactory signalling, namely the brain, the antenna and its sensilla hairs, the mouth parts, and the compound eye. The determination of spatially resolved element concentrations is useful in preparing the organ specific Ringer\\\'s solution, an artificial lymph that is used in disruptive neurobiological experiments. The role of trace elements in the progression of atherosclerosis is examined in a pilot study. A differential quantification of the element content in an induced murine atherosclerotic lesion reveals elevated S and Ca levels in the artery wall adjacent to the lesion and an increase in iron in the lesion. The 3D quantitative distribution of elements is reconstructed by means of stacking the 2D quantitative maps of consecutive sections of an artery. The feasibility of generating a quantitative elemental rodent brain atlas by Large Area Mapping is investigated by measuring at high beam currents. A whole coronal section of the rat brain was measured in segments in 14 h. Individual quantitative maps of the segments are pieced together to reconstruct a high-definition element distribution map of the whole section with a subcellular spatial resolution. The use of immunohistochemical staining enhanced with single elements helps in determining the cell specific element content. Its concurrent use with Large Area Mapping can give cellular element distribution maps.

Ion irradiation of tetrahedral amorphous carbon (ta-C) thin films induces a carbon phase transformation from the electrically insulating sp3 hybridization into the conducting sp2 hybridization. In this work, a detailed study on the electrical resistivity and the microstructure of areas, irradiated with several ion species at 30 keV energy is presented. Continuous ion bombardment yields a drastic drop of the resistivity as well as significant structural modifications of the evolving sp2 carbon phase. It is shown that the resistivity lowering can be attributed to the degree of graphitization in the film. Furthermore, the structural ordering processes are correlated with the ion deposited energy density. It is therefore revealed that the ion-induced phase transformation in ta-C films is a combination of sp3-to-sp2 conversion of carbon atoms and ion-induced ordering of the microstructure into a more graphite-like arrangement. All experiments were done with focused ion beam (FIB) systems by applying FIB lithography of electrical van-der-Pauw test structures. FIB lithography on ta-C layers is presented as a fast and easy technique for the preparation of electrically active micro- and nanostructures in an insulating carbon matrix.