No presente trabalho, foi desenvolvida uma metodologia sintética para a funcionalização de um monossacarídeo derivado da D-glicose através do Rearranjo de Ferrier, utilizando-se um sal de organotrifluoroborato de potássio como nucleófilo. Em seguida, foi feita a reação de cicloadição azida-acetileno com cobre, através de estratégias simples e eficientes, que seguem a filosofia da click chemistry, permitindo a preparação de uma série de compostos com grande diversidade estrutural, possuindo dois anéis heterocíclicos e diversos substituintes, com promissora atividade biológica. Dando continuidade ao projeto, foi feita a metanólise dos grupamentos acetila, com carbonato de potássio e metanol. Assim, as novas moléculas adquirem maior hidrofilicidade e podem ser enviadas para novos testes biológicos, para fins de comparação com as anteriores. A partir dos compostos desprotegidos, foi feita a mesilação seletiva da hidroxila primária do açúcar e a substituição com selenolato de sódio, com a obtenção de seleno-carboidratos inéditos. Em uma segunda etapa do trabalho, exploramos a reatividade do núcleo triazólico, com a reação de troca Te/Li seguida de captura por eletrófilo. O material de partida foi sintetizado a partir do fenil acetileno. Com o triazol telurado em mãos, partimos para as reações de troca e captura por eletrófilo. Utilizamos diferentes tipos de eletrófilos, como aldeídos, cetonas, iodetos, dentre outros. / We developed a synthetic methodology for the functionalization of a monosaccharide derived from D-glucose, using the Ferrier rearrangement with a potassium organotrifluoroborate salt as the nucleophile. This way, a series of coumpounds with high structural diversity and two heterocyclic rings having different substituents were produced, using the azide-acetylene cycloaddition reaction. Through this simple and efficient methodology, that follows the \"click chemistry\" philosophy, we could synthesize molecules with promising biological activity. Continuing the project, we performed the methanolysis of the acetyl groups, with potassium carbonate and methanol. Thus, the new molecules become more hydrophilic and could be sent to new biological tests, for a comparison with the previous ones. From the deprotected compounds, we were able to mesilate the primary hydroxyl and substitute it with sodium selenolate, obtaining novel selenium-carbohydrates. In a second part of our work, we were able to exploit the triazole reactivity trough the Te/Li exchange reaction followed by the electrophile capture. The starting material was obtained from phenyl acetylene. With the teluratte in our hands, we set out to the exchange reactions, using several types of electrophiles, such as aldehydes, ketones, iodide, among others.

No presente trabalho foi realizado um estudo comparativo entre as ligas AA7050- T7451 e AA2050-T84, bem como entre as direções L-T e T-L para analisar o comportamento das ligas, quando submetidos à temperatura ambiente e criogênica. Para realizar a análise comparativa entre as ligas e entre as direções, foram utilizados corpos de prova tipo C(T) (Compacto Tension), pré-trincados em fadiga. A análise comportamental das ligas foram avaliadas através dos ensaios de tenacidade à fratura, KIC, Curva KR, fadiga, da/dN. A microestrutura foi caracterizada através da microscopia ótica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura e microscopia eletrônica de transmissão. Foi observado que na direção L-T há uma maior resistência à propagação da trinca em relação à direção T-L, no que diz respeito à Curva KR, tanto para temperatura ambiente quanto para temperatura criogênica. Quando comparou-se as duas ligas na direção L-T em temperatura ambiente, ambas apresentaram um fator de intensidade de tensão similar. Os resultados dos ensaios de fadiga mostraram que a direção T-L é mais sensível à razão de carga. Analisando os resultados entre as direções L-T e T-L, observou-se que as duas ligas apresentaram comportamento anisotrópico. / A comparative study was made of the AA7050-T7451 and AA2050-T84 alloys and of the L-T and T-L directions to analyze the behavior of the alloys when subjected to room and cryogenic temperatures. The comparative analyses of the alloys and directions were performed using fatigue-precracked compact tension (CT) test specimens. The behavior of the alloys was analyzed based on fracture toughness, KIC, KR curve, fatigue, and da/dN tests. Their microstructure was characterized by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The KR curve indicated that resistance to crack propagation was higher in the L-T direction than in the T-L direction at both room and cryogenic temperatures. In a comparison of the two alloys in the L-T direction at room temperature, they were found to present a similar stress intensity factor. The results of the fatigue tests demonstrated that the T-L direction is more sensitive to the load ratio. An analysis of the results in the L-T and T-L directions indicated that the two alloys exhibited anisotropic behavior.

A Função Resposta (FR) foi obtida para os detectores semicondutores Ge e Si(Li) usando o método semiempírico. A FR foi calculada para cinco detectores, 4 de HpGe, de volumes ativos 89 cm3, 50 cm3, 8 cm3 e 5 cm3, e um detector de Si(Li) de 0,143 cm3 de volume ativo. O intervalo de energia estudado dói de 6 keV até 1,5 MeV. Dois tipos de estudos foram realizados neste trabalho. O primeiro estudo foi a dependência da FR com a geometria de detecção. Este estudo envolveu o cálculo da FR para uma geometria denominada simples e a extrapolação da FR calculada. A extração da FR foi realizada para analisar tanto espectros obtidos com uma geometria com blindagem, como espectros onde a distância fonte-detector foi modificada. O segundo estudo foi a dependência da FR com a eletrônica de detecção. Este estudo foi realizado variando-se o tempo de formação de pulso na eletrônica de detecção. O objetivo foi a de verificar a existência ou ausência do efeito do déficit balístico na resolução do detector. Este efeito não foi observado. As componentes da FR que descrevem a região de absorção total da energia dos fótons incidentes, bem como as componentes que descrevem a absorção parcial dessa energia foram estudadas. Particularmente, neste trabalho, foram propostas funções empíricas tanto para o tratamento do espalhamento Compton múltiplo originado no próprio detector (cristal), como para o espalhamento de fótons originado nas vizinhanças do cristal. Um estudo através de simulações via Monte Carlo foi também realizado, para a compreensão das estruturas de espalhamento de fótons produzidas numa blindagem de ferro. Uma proposta de deconvolução de espectros envolvendo radiação espalhada foi estudada, para fins de cálculo da dose depositada no material espalhador. / The Response Function (RF) for Ge and Si(Li) semiconductor detectors was obtained. The RF was calculated for Five detectors, four HpGe with active volumes of 89 cm3, 50 cm3, 8 cm3 and 5 cm3, and one Si(Li) with 0,143 cm3 of active volume. The intervalo f energy studied ranger from 6 keV up to 1,5 MeV. Two kinds of studies were done in this work. The first one was the RF dependence with the detection geometry. Here the calculation of the RF for a geometry named as simple and na extrapolation of that RF, were both done. The extrapolation peocess analyzed both, spectra obtained with a shielding geometry and spectra where the source-detector distance was modified. The second one was the RF dependence with the detection electronics. The purpose was to verify the effect of the ballistic déficit in the resolution of the detector. This effect was not observed. The RF component that describe the region of the total absorption of the energy of the incident phtons, and the partial absorption of this energy, were both treated. In particular, empirical functions were proposed for the treatment of both, the multiple scattering originated in the detector (crystal), and the phton scattering originated in materials of the neighborhood of the crytal. Another study involving Monte Carlo simulations was also done in order to comprehend the photon scattering strutures produced in na iron shield. A deconvolution method is suggested, for spectra related to scattered radition in order to assess the dose delivered to the scattered.

Le besoin croissant de batteries à ions lithium dans notre société exige le développement de matériaux d'électrode positive, avec des exigences spécifiques en termes de densité énergétique, de coût et de durabilité. Dans ce but, nous avons exploré quatre composés à base de sulfate: un fluorosulfate - LiCuSO4F et une famille d'oxysulfates - Fe2O(SO4)2, Li2Cu2O(SO4)2 and Li2VO(SO4)2. Leur synthèse, structure et performances électrochimiques sont présentées pour la première fois. Étant électrochimiquement inactif, LiCuSO4F présente une structure triplite ordonnée qui est distincte des autres fluorosulfates. L'activité électrochimique des composés oxysulfate a été explorée face au lithium. Plus spécifiquement, Fe2O(SO4)2 délivre une capacité réversible d'environ 125 mA∙h/g à 3.0 V par rapport à Li+/Li0; Li2VO(SO4)2 et Li2Cu2O(SO4)2 présentent respectivement les potentiels les plus élevés de 4.7 V vs. Li+/Li0 parmi les composés à base de V et de Cu. Enfin, la phase Li2Cu2O(SO4)2 révèle la possibilité d'une activité électrochimique anionique dans une électrode positive polyanionique. Leurs propriétés physiques, telles que les conductivités ioniques et les propriétés magnétiques, sont également rapportées. Dans l'ensemble, les oxysulfates sont intéressants à étudier en tant qu'électrodes positives polyanioniques pour les batteries à ions lithium. / The increasing demand of our society for Li-ion batteries calls for the development of positive electrode materials, with specific requirements in terms of energy density, cost, and sustainability. In such a context, we explored four sulfate based compounds: a fluorosulfate – LiCuSO4F, and a family of oxysulfates – Fe2O(SO4)2, Li2Cu2O(SO4)2 and Li2VO(SO4)2. Herein their synthesis, structure, and electrochemical performances are presented for the first time. Being electrochemically inactive, LiCuSO4F displays an ordered triplite structure which is distinct from other fluorosulfates. The electrochemical activity of the oxysulfate compounds was explored towards lithium. Specifically, Fe2O(SO4)2 delivers a sustained reversible capacity of about 125 mA∙h/g at 3.0 V vs. Li+/Li0; Li2VO(SO4)2 and Li2Cu2O(SO4)2 respectively exhibit the highest potential of 4.7 V vs. Li+/Li0 among V- and Cu- based compounds. Last but not least, the Li2Cu2O(SO4)2 phase reveals the possibility of anionic electrochemical activity in a polyanionic positive electrode. Their physical properties, such as ionic conductivities and magnetic properties are also reported. Overall, this makes oxysulfates interesting to study as polyanionic positive electrodes for Li-ion batteries.

Le silicium est un matériau étudié depuis plusieurs années comme une sérieuse alternative au graphite dans les batteries Li-ion. Ce travail de thèse vise à développer des approches alternatives et complémentaires à celles déjà existantes afin de mieux comprendre les mécanismes de lithiation et de dégradation. L'analyse croisée entre plusieurs techniques, principalement FIB-ToF-SIMS, Auger, XPS et FIB-MEB, point central de l'étude, nécessite la mise en place de protocoles spécifiques prenant en compte la forte réactivité des échantillons lithiés. En premier lieu, un couplage entre ToF-SIMS et XPS sur des couches minces de silicium, permet de mettre en évidence la présence d'une phase riche en lithium ségrégée à l'interface entre la couche de matériau actif et le collecteur de courant en cuivre. Un mécanisme particulier de lithiation du silicium, basé sur l'existence de chemins de diffusion rapide pour le lithium, est suggéré. La réalisation de coupes FIB effectuées in situ dans la chambre d'analyse du ToF-SIMS sur des électrodes à base de poudre micrométrique de Si permet ensuite de proposer un mécanisme de lithiation analogue à celui mis en évidence précédemment. En outre, la présence de grains déconnectés du réseau percolant de l'électrode au cours du cyclage et piégeant le lithium est mise en évidence et contribue à la défaillance rapide de la batterie. Enfin, la méthodologie développée est appliquée à l'étude d'électrodes composées de Si nanométrique et de composite Si/C. Elle participe à l'établissement d'un modèle de croissance de SEI à la surface de grains de silicium nanométriques et permet d'identifier les raisons de la défaillance de ces électrodes. / Silicon is a serious option to replace graphite in anodes for Li-ion batteries since it offers a specific capacity almost ten times higher. However, silicon anodes suffer from a drastic capacity fading, making it unusable after a few cycles. The work presented here aims at the development of new alternative and complementary approaches to those currently used, in order to better understand lithiation and degradation mechanisms. These methods are based on cross-analysis between several surface characterizations techniques, including FIB-ToF-SIMS, AES, XPS and FIB-MEB, which require specific procedures to deal with the extreme sensitivity of lithiated materials. Coupling XPS and ToF-SIMS on silicon thin films revealed the presence of a Li-rich phase segregated at the interface between silicon and Cu current collector. A mechanism based on fast diffusion paths for lithium is suggested. In situ FIB milling, performed in the analysis chamber of the ToF-SIMS on anodes using micrometer-sized silicon particles, revealed a similar mechanism involving fast diffusion paths for lithium. Additional TEM observations suggest that, in the case of micrometer-sized particles, these paths result from sub-grain boundaries. Additionally, the presence of Li trapped in Si particles which are disconnected from the conductive grid along cycling is shown, contributing to the poor battery lifespan. Finally, the developed method has been applied to electrodes based on nanometer-sized Si particles and Si/C composite. Despite of the small size of the involved particles, it is possible to get information about SEI growth on the surface of nano-sized silicon particles and to identify causes of failure.

L’amélioration des systèmes de stockage d’énergie représente un défi majeur de la transition vers les véhicules électriques et les énergies renouvelables. Les accumulateurs Li-ion, qui ont déjà conquis le marché de l’électronique portatif, constitueront la technologie dominante pour réaliser cet objectif, et sont donc l’objet d’intense recherches afin d’améliorer leurs performances, en particulier en termes de capacité. Parmi les stratégies les plus prometteuse pour augmenter la capacité des matériaux de cathodes, beaucoup d’espoir est placé dans la préparation de matériaux riches en lithium, qui combinent l’activité électrochimique des cations (métaux de transitions) et des anions (oxygène). Cependant, l’activation des propriétés redox de l’oxygène est accompagnée de plusieurs problèmes qui freinent le développement industriel de ces matériaux. Il est donc nécessaire d’obtenir de solides connaissances fondamentales sur le phénomène de redox anionique pour résoudre ces problèmes. En utilisant des matériaux modèles à base d’iridium, ce travail explore comment l’activité de l’oxygène est influencé par son environnement local. Les propriétés électrochimiques des composés Na2IrO3 et Na(Li1/3Ir2/3)O2 sont étudiés afin de comprendre l’impact de la nature de l’ion alcalin. L’influence du ratio Li/M dans les oxydes de structure NaCl est étudié à travers la synthèse d’un nouveau composé de formule Li3IrO4, qui présente la plus haute capacité réversible parmi les matériaux d’insertion utilisés comme cathode. Cette famille de matériau est finalement étendue à des phases contenant des protons par une simple méthode d’échange cationique, et les propriétés électrochimiques d’un nouveau composé H3+xIrO4 sont étudiées, dévoilant de très bonnes propriétés de stockage de puissance en milieu aqueux. / Improving energy storage stands as a key challenge to facilitate the transition to electric vehicles and renewable energy sources in the next years. Li-ion batteries, which have already conquered the portable electronic market, will be the leading technology to achieve this goal and are therefore the focus of intense research activities to improve their performances, especially in terms of capacity. Among the most promising strategies to obtain high capacity cathode materials, the preparation of Li-rich materials combining the redox activity of cations (transition metals) and anions (oxygen) attracts considerable interest. However, activation of anionic redox in these high capacity materials comes with several issues that need to be solved prior their implementation in the energy storage market. Deep fundamental understanding of anionic redox is therefore required to go forward. Using model systems based on iridium, this work explores how the oxygen local environment can play a role on the activation of anionic redox. The electrochemical properties of Na2IrO3 and Na(Li1/3Ir2/3)O2 phases are studied to understand the impact of the alkali nature. The influence of the Li/M ratio in rocksalt oxides is investigated with the synthesis of a new material Li3IrO4, which presents the highest reversible capacity among intercalation cathode materials. The rich electrochemical properties of this family of iridate materials are finally extended by preparing proton-based materials through a simple ion-exchange reaction and the electrochemical properties of a new H3+xIrO4 material are presented, with high rate capability performances.

Le besoin accru de stockage d'énergie via Li- et batteries Na-ion nécessite une recherche continue de nouveaux matériaux de cathode ayant une densité énergétique plus élevée et étant sûr et durable. Ainsi, nous avons exploré des composés à base de borate capables de réagir avec Li/ Na-ions de manière réversible, soit par le biais de réactions topotactic- ou de conversion. Nous nous sommes concentrés sur les candidats avec des anions polyborate, qui devraient montrer des potentiels redox élevés par rapport aux matériaux à base BO3. Li6CuB4O10 utilisant comme composé modèle, nous avons montré la possibilité d'obtenir des potentiels d'oxydo-réduction de 4.2 et 3.9 V par rapport à Li pour l'α- et ß polymorphes. L'activité redox a été rationalisée par spectroscopie EPR et calculs DFT. Nous révélons en outre la relation structurelle / synthétique entre les deux polymorphes et montrons une conductivité ionique élevée de 1.4 mS / cm à 500 °C pour une forme de HT d'-Li6CuB4O10. De plus, nous avons pu préparer deux pentaborates 3d-métal nouveau sodium Na3MB5O10 (M = Fe, Co). M = Fe, nous avons observé une intercalation Na réversible à un potentiel moyen de 2.5 V par rapport à Na, alors Na3CoB5O10 avéré être inactif électrochimique. Dévier à partir de composés d'insertion / désinsertion classiques, nous avons étudié la électrochimique entraîné la réaction d'un oxyborate bismuth Bi4B2O9 contre Li par des mesures électrochimiques combinées avec XRD et TEM. Nous avons constaté qu'il est possible de faire défiler ce matériau réversible entre 1.7 et 3.5 V avec un potentiel redox d'environ 2.3 V par rapport à Li avec seulement 5% en poids de carbone et une faible polarisation ~ 300 mV. / The increased need of energy storage via Li- and Na-ion batteries requires a continuous search for new cathode materials having higher energy density and being safe and sustainable. Thus, we explored borate based compounds capable of reacting with Li/ Na-ions in a reversible way either through topotactic- or conversion reactions. We focused on candidates with polyborate anions, that are expected to show elevated redox potentials compared to BO3 based materials. Using Li6CuB4O10 as a model compound we showed the possibility to achieve redox potentials of 4.2 and 3.9 V vs Li for the α- and β-polymorphs. The redox activity was rationalized through EPR spectroscopy and DFT calculations. We further reveal the structural/ synthetic relation between the two polymorphs and show a high ionic conductivity of 1.4 mS/cm at 500°C for a HT form of α-Li6CuB4O10. Moreover we were able to prepare two new sodium 3d-metal pentaborates Na3MB5O10 (M = Fe, Co). For M = Fe we observed a reversible Na intercalation at an average potential of 2.5 V vs Na, whereas Na3CoB5O10 turned out to be electrochemical inactive. Deviating from classical insertion/ deinsertion compounds, we studied the electrochemical driven reaction of a bismuth oxyborate Bi4B2O9 versus Li through electrochemical measurements combined with XRD and TEM. We found that it is possible to reversible cycle this material between 1.7 and 3.5 V with an redox potential of ~2.3 V vs Li with only 5wt% carbon and a small polarization ~300 mV. Owing to the complexity of 3d-metal borate chemistry encountered through this PhD, the chances of having a borate based positive electrode for next generation Li-ion batteries is rather slim.

Dans ce travail nous avons réalisé la synthèse de nitrures structure 2D Li3-2xCoxN et de structure 3D Li7MnN4 par méthode céramique, sous atmosphère contrôlée. Après avoir acquis la maîtrise des paramètres de synthèse, nous réalisons la caractérisation structurale et l'étude des propriétés électrochimiques de chaque matériau (capacité spécifique, rechargeabilité…). Dans le cas des matériaux 2D, des affinements par la méthode de Rietveld nous ont permis de déterminer précisément les formules de ces composés. Une étude par spectroscopie diélectrique met en évidence la présence d'une faible proportion de Co+ parmi les Co2+ à l'origine de propriétés de conduction électronique. Nous montrons pour une étude DRX in-operando que le volume de maille ne varie que de 1,5% lors de d'un cycle expliquant la stabilité des capacités de 180mAh g-1 à 300 mAh g-1 selon les conditions. Dans le cas des matériaux 3D, Li7MnN4 a montré les meilleures performances avec des capacités réversibles jusqu' 300mAh g-1. Une étude DRX in-operando a montré que le mécanisme de désinsertion du lithium se déroulé en deux biphasage et une étape de solution solide. Une optimisation des performances est possible en réduisant la taille des particules par mécanobroyage : des capacités de 250 et 120 mAh g-1 sont obtenus à régime C et 5c. L'ensemble de ces nitrures présentent une forte réactivité avec l'humidité mais leur structure a pu être préservée sous air sec / In this study, we focus on the synthesis of nitrides with 2D structure Li3-2xCoxN and 3D structure Li7MnN4 by solid state route, under controlled atmosphere. Once we master all parameters of the synthesis, we study the structural chracterization and the electrochemical properties of each compound (specific capacity, rechargeability...) In the case of 2D compounds, precises compositions were determined by Rietveld refinement A dielectric spectroscopy study demonstrate the existance of a small populations of Co+ ions among Co2+, which lead to electronic conductivity properties. By in-operando XRD study we show the lattice volume varies by only 1,5% which explains the stabilty of the specific capacity of 180mAh g-1 à 300 mAh g-1 depending on conditions. In the case of 3D compounds, Li7MnN4 showed the best performance with reversible capacities up to 300mAh g-1. A XRD in-operando study showed that the mechanism of lithium desintertion place in two biphasage and a solid solution phase. Performance optimization is possible by reducing the particle size by ball milling: capacities of 250 and 120 mAh g-1 are obtained at C and 5C rates. All these nitrides present a high reactivity with moisture but the structure was preserved in dry air

L'objet de cette thèse est l'étude de la sélection des structures transverses stationnaires dans les lasers. Nous nous attachons à décrire expérimentalement et à expliquer numériquement à l'aide d'une méthode de type Fox--Li les observations de modes transverses qui peuvent être réalisées dans un laser à état solide pompé longitudinalement. Ainsi, nous sommes amenés à explorer en profondeur le comportement des cavités non--dégénérées dans différentes situations de pompage, ainsi que les notions de dégénérescence exacte et de dégénérescence partielle. Nous sommes également amenés à étudier, bien que de manière assez qualitative, le rôle important des effets thermiques dans la formation des modes transverses dans les zones de dégénérescence de la cavité. Ces questions ont fait l'objet de multiples investigations depuis l'avènement du laser, mais nous mettons toutefois en évidence que de sérieux problèmes d'interprétations d'observations expérimentales persistent dans la littérature scientifique contemporaine. Une idée fausse assez répandue stipule par exemple qu'il est possible d'exciter un mode Laguerre--Gauss ou Ince--Gauss d'ordre élevé en utilisant un faisceau de pompe suffisamment petit afin qu'il recouvre parfaitement le lobe principal du mode visé. Nous montrons analytiquement, numériquement et vérifions expérimentalement que ceci est impossible dans une situation non--dégénérée, et expliquons comment certaines observations réalisées proches d'une dégénérescence peuvent contribuer à propager cette idée erronée. Bien que le modèle que nous utilisons n'élude pas les questions importantes concernant le rôle de la dynamique temporelle dans la formation des modes transverses dans un laser, sa pertinence réside dans sa simplicité et sa capacité à reproduire de manière très satisfaisante toutes les observations expérimentales. Ainsi, toutes les observations de modes transverses qu'il est possible de réaliser dans un laser peuvent être comprises à travers ce modèle, qui ne nécessite comme ingrédients principaux qu'une cavité, un gain saturé, des effets thermiques et éventuellement des effets de diaphragme. De plus, le modèle simple que nous présentons peut s'étendre sans difficulté à l'étude de cavités instables ou de cavités à miroirs asphériques qui offrent des possibilités nouvelles pour l'excitation de modes transverses originaux. / The main concern of this thesis is the selection of stationary transverse structures in lasers. Throughout the manuscript, we get involved into describing the observations that can be realized in a longitudinally pumped solid--state laser, from both experimental and numerical perspectives using Fox--Li simulations. We explore in detail, on the one hand, the particular behavior of non--degenerate cavities in various pumping situations, and on the other hand the exact and partial degeneracy situations. We also investigate the very influential role played by thermal effects concerning the formation of transverse structures in degeneracy regions, although this study is limited to a more qualitative description. These problems have been of great interest since the early development of laser, however we show in this manuscript that the contemporary scientific litterature still suffers from misinterpretations concerning experimental observations of transverse modes that can occur in lasers. For instance, there still remains the widespread belief that it is possible to excite a high-order Laguerre--Gaussian or Ince--Gaussian mode by strongly focusing the pump beam inside the active medium so that it matches the principal lobe of the targeted mode. We demonstrate analytically, numerically and experimentally that this idea is unfounded and show how some experiments that occur near a cavity degeneracy are misleading and can contribute to spread this misconception. Even if the model we use is unable to deal with some very significant issues concerning the mode formation in the time domain and the build--up of the laser oscillation, we believe that its strength lies into its simplicity and its ability to reproduce every experimental observation in a very accurate way. Hence, we managed to explain and interpret all the experimental observations we have realized given a very few assumptions including the presence of a cavity, a saturated gain, thermal effects and eventually diaphragm effects. Moreover, the simple model that we present can be extended without any difficulty to the case of unstable resonators, or to resonators built from graded--phase mirrors which offer new possibilities towards the excitation of original transverse modes.

The aim of this work is to describe final properties of the electrodes based on the amount of pressure used during its production. In the theoretical part of this work, secondary electrochemical accumulators are described, with the focus on Li-ion accumulators. In the main part of this work, the production of Li-ion accumulators, with usage of different pressures during its production is described. In the final part of this work, the examination of these created cells for the classification of the optimal production pressure is described.