Empruntant aux notions théoriques de la force du droit de Pierre Bourdieu, cette thèse remet en question le succès de la réforme de la procédure pénale au Chili. Elle applique une approche critique différente de celle qui est traditionnellement utilisée dans ce domaine, qui limite souvent la critique au champ juridique, sans considérer comment ce domaine s’inscrit dans un contexte social plus large. L’hypothèse de la recherche est que les intérêts des acteurs du système de justice pénale (procureurs, défenseurs, demandeurs et juges) et diverses formes de capitaux influencent la sentence avant même que la sentence finale soit rendue par le tribunal. Si l’hypothèse se révélait exacte, cela affecterait la légitimité du système de justice pénale au Chili, puisque des facteurs qui vont au-delà du droit pénal affectent la façon dont ce droit est appliqué. Pour tester l’hypothèse, en 2016, l’auteur a observé des négociations entre des acteurs judiciaires au Chili. Les observations se sont principalement concentrées sur la «procédure abrégée», une procédure alternative sommaire au procès pénal ordinaire introduite avec les réformes du droit pénal chilien. L’analyse des données recueillies confirme l’hypothèse: diverses limitations et contraintes non juridiques, et parfois d’ordre juridique, influent sur l’accès à la procédure abrégée et sur son résultat pour les accusés (et les victimes) à qui cette dernière s’applique. Certaines de ces limites et contraintes sont bien connues dans la littérature, particulièrement nord- américaine, par exemple sur les accords négociés et la négociation de plaidoyer. Mais la thèse démontre aussi un étiquetage récurrent, souvent subtil, des et parfois par les accusés xiii selon un système inconscient de différenciation sociale et économique. C’est cet étiquetage qui limite et contraint la légitimité de la procédure abrégée. Cette thèse propose une application de la Théorie de la force du droit de Pierre Bourdieu. Elle invite également les acteurs du système pénal, et ceux qui ont le pouvoir, à assumer la responsabilité des normes sociales inconscientes qu’ils reproduisent, à travers le système de justice pénale, et qui peuvent affecter sa légitimité.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Introduced in 2010, the Dispensation Zimbabwe Program (DZP) regularised undocumented Zimbabwean immigrants in South Africa. When DZP was closed, the Zimbabwe Special Permit was introduced, which was also replaced by the Zimbabwe Exemption Permit. This thesis examines the lived experiences of Zimbabwean migrants from the time they arrived in South Africa without papers, visas, or permits. It then examines the processes of acquiring DZP papers, processes of replacing it, and how conditions on the permits reinforce a particular notion of belonging for Zimbabwean immigrants. I draw on work inspired by the anthropologist Victor Turner’s (1967) concept of liminality to show that Zimbabwean migrants had been going through various phases of uncertain legal statuses which are all liminal. Through accounts of lived experiences and biographical narratives of migrants who see themselves as ‘entrepreneurs’ in Cape Town, I consider how migrant’s experience the structural effects of documentation and having or not having ‘papers’. It starts with a state of “illegality” because of being an undocumented migrant in South Africa. It proceeds to “amnesty” from deportation following the announcement of DZP. It then proceeds to the filling of application forms for legalisation at Home Affairs. The DZP permits make them “liminal citizens” in that they got political citizenship by virtue of being documented, but at the same time, the migrants do not enjoy full citizenship status economically. There is also “legal suspension” as in the period between applications for replacement of the permit with another for example from Zimbabwe Special Permit (ZSP) to Zimbabwe Exemption Permit (ZEP). The imposition of conditions in permits that it will not be renewed or extended throws them into a condition of “temporary conditional legality”. As a result, the liminality experienced is both existential and juridical. Juridical liminality results from uncertain legal status whether the migrant is documented or not. Juridical liminality is inherent in law and immigration policy. Existential liminality is because the uncertain legal status permeates all aspects of Zimbabwean immigrants’ lives and delimits their range of action in different spheres. This includes jobs, transnational capabilities, business, family, housing, and schooling for their children. Most studies on migration do not extend their arguments beyond that permits matter as they see them as giving immediate access to social and economic rights. In this thesis, I do not only examine how a condition of being an undocumented immigrant shapes aspects of immigrants’ lives but I further examine the experiences of living with temporary visas and their impact on their lives and family. Whereas in a rite of passage, the liminal stage is temporary, Zimbabweans in South Africa are living in chronic liminality. In all phases of liminal legality, the thesis demonstrates state power through documents/visas in shaping migrant lives deepening our understanding of immigrant incorporation, exclusion, citizenship and belonging.

Thèse numérisée par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Yes / This article presents midwives’ views and experiences of flexible working and work-life balance. Both flexible working and work-life balance are important contemporary agendas within midwifery and can have both positive and negative consequences for midwives. Full-time midwives and those without caring commitments feel disadvantaged by flexible working and work-life balance policies as they have to fit when they work around part-time midwives and are increasingly expected to cover extra work. They feel their work-life balance is marginalised and this is fuelling discontent and resentment among midwives and leading to divisions between full and part-time staff that reinforce flexibility stigma. Although flexible working and work-life balance are important for recruiting and retaining midwives they are part of the ongoing tensions and challenges for midwives and the midwifery profession. Keywords flexibility stigma, flexible working, full-time work, marginalisation, midwives, National Health Service,

Les chiffres sur la participation et les résultats scolaires sont nettement à l’avantage des filles dans les îles anglophones de la Caraïbe, à l’inverse de ce qui se passe dans les pays dits en voie de développement, à l’exception de l’Amérique latine. L’écart entre les deux sexes est tel qu’une théorie, née il y a une vingtaine d’années, sur la marginalisation des garçons continue à alimenter les débats. En dépit du sentiment que les filles et les femmes sont en passe de prendre le dessus, une analyse de la situation globale de la société caribéenne, révèle la contradiction des inégalités qui persistent à leur détriment, dans le monde économique, professionnel et politique. La situation révèle les limites du rôle de l’éducation mais aussi les failles du système hérité du colonialisme et la valence différentielle des sexes. Les politiques de développement dans la Caraïbe, doivent intégrer la dimension du genre. Elles ne peuvent pas non plus ignorer les perspectives que pourrait lui offrir un leadership féminin en train de s’affirmer. / The Caribbean school system reveals a gender gap in favour of girls and a reverse trend from other developing countries, except in Latin America. Girls outperform boys at all levels in term of academic success as well as attendance, to a point that the boys’ underachievement and under-attendance as well as repetitions at school are of a growing concern for governments in the region and have brought about a controversial theory about the marginalization of boys and men. Despite the general feeling that boys are being threatened by the empowerment of women, a detailed analysis of their situation shows the contradiction of the discrimination women still face locally in the economic, professional and political world. The situation bears evidence to the limitations of education and the failings of a post-colonial system as well as gender differentials. Can Caribbean development policies privilege gender mainstreaming so as to tap the potential of both men and women, while women should be viewed as equal agents of development?

RésuméEn raison des bouleversements qui ont eu lieu dans la seconde moitié du XXe siècle, le monde a connu une accélération notable de l'histoire. Cette accélération s'est manifestée sur plusieurs fronts – l'historique, le scientifique, le technologique – mais aussi sur le front littéraire, changeant à jamais la façon dont nous représentons notre monde et notre passé. Cette thèse porte sur les nouveaux modes de représentation ou mimesis dans l'œuvre d'art. Comment les événements, qui se déroulent en dehors du roman, ont-ils affecté la forme même, la technique et la langue du roman contemporain ? Comment la violence qui a été infligée au monde extérieur s'est-elle reflétée dans le récit littéraire ? Du fait que la forme narrative est en soi un moyen de « rassembler » les événements dispersés et les incohérences de la réalité, la forme traditionnelle manipule violemment cette réalité dans le but de lui donner un sens, quand elle est souvent inexplicable. En mettant en question les conventions naturelles et données du récit, les romans expérimentaux du XXe siècle ont tenté de mettre en place des formes originales, en mesure de représenter des expériences différentes. Notre thèse traite principalement de ces nouvelles conceptions de la représentation dans le roman contemporain et de la manière dont, en dépit de leur fragmentation, de l'expérimentation et de la rupture violente avec les traditions du passé, ces romans innovants ont néanmoins réussi à produire des «représentations» de la réalité qui captent fidèlement notre histoire contemporaine, caractérisée par l'accélération et la fragmentation. Pour justifier cet argument, nous avons comparé les récits de fiction avec ceux des deux autres domaines à partir desquels nous tirons la connaissance de notre passé, à savoir l'histoire et la mémoire. Où est la place de la fiction aux côtés de ces deux piliers de connaissance souvent totalisants et totalitaires ? Enfin, que peut faire la littérature pour ces sujets de l'histoire, systématiquement exclus de l'écriture de l’histoire dominante ? En prenant la plume pour écrire leur version de l'histoire, ces «autres» du document historique dominant ont inscrit leur histoire particulière sur le palimpseste existant de l'histoire dominante et ont également obligé les canons littéraires, auxquels ils appartiennent, à développer leurs limites esthétiques et éthiques. / SummaryAs a result of the changes that have occurred in the latter half of the twentieth century, the world has witnessed a noticeable acceleration of history. This acceleration has manifested itself on many fronts – the historic, the scientific, the technological – but also on the literary front changing forever the way we represent our world and our place in it. This paper deals with the new modes of representation or mimesis in the work of art. How have the events happening outside the novel affected the very form, technique and the language of the contemporary novel? How has the violence that has been inflicted on the outside world being replicated and perhaps resolved in the literary narrative? Because narrative form is in itself a way of ordering and “bringing together” the fragmented events and incoherencies of reality, the very traditional form often violently manipulates this reality with the aim of giving meaning to an often inexplicable reality. By bringing into question the natural and given conventions of narrative, the experimental novels of the twentieth century have tried to realize original and unique forms that are able to represent different experiences. Our paper deals with primarily with these new conventions of representing reality and how, despite their fragmentation, experimentation, and violent rupture with the traditions of the past, they have nonetheless successfully produced “representations” of reality that faithfully capture our contemporary history characterized by acceleration as well as fragmentation. In order to justify this argument, we have compared narratives of fiction with the other two domains from which we derive the knowledge of our past, namely history and memory. Where is the place of fiction alongside these two often totalizing and totalitarian pillars of knowledge? Finally, what can literature do to those subjects of history who have systematically excluded from the writing of their dominant History? By taking the pen to write their side of the story, these “others” of the dominant historical document have both inscribed their particular stories on the existing palimpsest of dominant history, but have also forced the literary canons in which they belong to expand both their aesthetic and ethical boundaries.

Research evidence suggests that disabled students are experiencing forms of exclusion from and within schools, however little is known of the nature of this phenomenon. This study investigated the nature of school exclusion in relation to disabled students. It sought to uncover the factors that exclude disabled students from and within schools, and make recommendations to reduce and eliminate these factors. Using a grounded theory methodology, this research investigated the nature of school exclusion. It explored parents of disabled student’s views about their children’s experiences of school exclusion both from school, and within school. The themes identified by parents were then further investigated with school principals, teachers, teacher aides and school students. This study revealed that disabled students are being excluded from and within school in New Zealand in a number of ways. These include being denied enrolment and/or fulltime attendance at school; being denied access to, and participation within the curriculum; being bullied; inappropriate teacher and/or principal beliefs and practices in relation to funding; a lack of caring, valuing and responsibility by school staff; limited teacher knowledge and understanding; poor relationships between parents and school staff; and exclusionary beliefs and practices in relation to teacher aides. Based on the findings of the study, four propositions were put forward to explain why disabled students are being excluded from and within school. These are that disabled students are considered to be less entitled to human rights than non-disabled students; that there is a lack of school accountability in relation to legal and human rights obligations to disabled students; that inclusive education is predicated on issues of funding and resourcing; and that there is prejudice towards disabled students. Based on the findings of how and why disabled students are excluded from and within school, prompts for classroom teachers and school principals/senior management staff were developed in seven areas shown to be important to this phenomenon. These areas are access, accountability, attitudes, knowledge, responsibility, and funding and resourcing. The prompts are intended to help guide attention and discussion to the issues that are important if exclusion is to be reduced and eliminated. As well as this, recommendations are made for government and government agencies outlining ways that they can contribute to the reduction and elimination of school exclusion for disabled students.

Leadership in an egalitarian society is a contradiction in terms. Still, a collective has to be vocal in order to gain a bargaining position, and to have its identity reflected and accepted. This is not the least true for a marginalised society like När socken, on the Swedish island of Gotland. In this farming community of some 550 inhabitants - as on Gotland in general - there are, in the conventional sense of the word, no leaders to perform this presentation. However, the concept of spokesperson is well established. They are locally defined by the use of labels, which in turn are based on descriptions or adjectives like "firebrand", "nay-sayer", "good", "balanced" etc. I propose that this way of defining spokespersons is founded on a strong egalitarian notion and is best described as a semantic field, rather than in hierarchical terms. Throughout the centuries the geographical and social base for the individual spokesperson has been the farm or ensamgård, i.e. a group of economically, jurally, ritually, as well as spatially linked homesteads. Thus, the socken of När may be described as an example of a house-based society. Successively these ensamgård have given place to more individual farms and these in turn have become linked directly with the socken as such. Presently the socken itself has ceased to exist, at least as a formal unit within the administrative set-up of Sweden. Nevertheless, locally När socken continues to act as the prime key organising symbol. As such, När socken forms the prime focus for the processes of identity formation and the most important forum for passing information, decision-making and implementation. On the one hand, the individual farms, with links of kinship, neighbourhood, co-operation, and co-ownership, constitute the basis for the formation of social ties within the socken. On the other, such ties are also established by popular participation in an astounding amount of voluntary associations as well as quite a few projects benefiting the community as a whole. These are undertakings that mobilise the absolute majority of the population. These processes have here been summarised as När’s socken-democracy. To the outsider the projects are the most obvious result of localised popular participation. From a local point of view these projects are, apart from being socially and economically significant, primarily regarded as sources of enjoyment - the satisfaction of which is considered in itself the single most important reason to participate in any collective social action. När socken is successfully represented as a thoroughly dynamic "modern" industrious and thriving community. At the same time it is regionally regarded as one of the most traditional Gotlandic farming socken with all the connotations of a warm-embracing but also somewhat backward, marginalised community. These rather contradictory rhetoric tools are successfully employed by the spokespersons as they, in unison, represent the community. However, the spokespersons of När socken are not a homogenous group with a single goal. Local solidarity obscures the fact that the presentation is based on a complex process. One can find strong urges among farmers/farms not only to be good enough (duga) but to excel at the cost of one’s neighbours, there is also a continuos competition to define what is to be the dominant local paradigm. This way of consciously devising rhetorics and keep a firm line between the community and the outside may be interpreted as a result of an expressed need to come to terms with political and economic, as well as moral marginalisation of the individual and community. Still, these rhetorics do not directly determine the ways in which the community members interact on När or vice versa. Everyday practices, be they socialising or engaging in a project, answer to a felt need to smoothen out everyday community life. The duality of a symbolically constructed rhetoric identity and local practice may be regarded as complementary ways to construct a viable collective identity in an increasingly individualised and globalised world. The combination of rhetoric and practice can be seen as answers to the expressed local concern as how to make life in the margin a feasible proposition.

This thesis aims to investigate the phenomenon of war rape in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in order to understand the dynamics, contextual realities and consequences of its perpetration. Practical and theoretical knowledge is generated which is relevant for health care interventions, humanitarian assistance and peace initiatives, that are cognizant of the actual needs of the affected populations. The study employed ethnographic methodology involving prolonged engagement with the field, participant observation, formal and informal interviews, keeping of field notes and the continuous practice of reflexivity. The four papers in this thesis represent formal interviews with participants from three distinct groups: local leaders (Paper I), ex-child soldier boys (Paper II) and women survivors of sexual violence (Paper III & IV). Qualitative Content Analysis was used for the interview study with local leaders (Paper I). Findings from this study reveal how mass rape and the methods of perpetration create a chaos effectively destroying communities. The leaders draw attention to the fact that an exclusive focus on raped women misses other structural factors that contribute to war and sexual violence, factors such as the global political economy, international apathy, the stance of the church, effects of militarization, inappropriate aid and interpretations of gender roles. Through the theoretical lenses of militarised masculinity and gender based violence, interviews with ex-child soldier boys, seen as both victims of war as well as proxy perpetrators of sexual violence, were analyzed using thematic analysis. Findings revealed the systematic and violent construction of children into soldiers, inculcating a rigid set of stereotypical hyper-masculine behaviors promoting dominance by violating the subordinate “other”. These findings argue for a more complex, contextualized view of the perpetrator resulting from the ways society has (re)constructed gender, ethnicity and class. Papers III and IV reflect the interviews and narratives provided by women survivors. Guided by thematic analysis and a matrix of theories: Structural violence, Intersectionality and “new wars”; Paper III bears witness to the women’s expressions of their profound losses and dispossession as they struggle to survive stigmatization in the impoverished margins of the warzone, along with children born of rape. The perpetrator is cited here as well as by the leaders as predominantly Interhamwe. Payne’s Sites of Resilience model used in Paper IV situates stigmatized women survivors suffering in a global context as they navigate survival, demonstrating resilience in the margins through support from their faith in God, scarce health services, indigenous healing and strategic alliances. Findings suggest that collaborations of existing strengthened networks, ie: the church, healthcare and indigenous healers, could extend the reach of sustainable and holistic support services, positively effecting already identified sites of resilience. Findings draw attention to the challenges faced by public health in addressing mass trauma. Women’s raped bodies represent tangible material damage, embedded in a matrix of globalization processes and structural violence involving gender, ethnicity and class. This requires serious reflection.

This thesis reports on a study on human rights education and values of the girl–child in the Eastleigh community in Nairobi Kenya. The investigation indicated that her right to education is marginalised and that in the many cases cultural and religious beliefs dominate the need to equal access to education. This research identified perceived factors that may influence the infusion of human rights education and values in the teaching–learning practice of selected secondary schools in the Eastleigh community, and propose possible curriculum guidelines that are feasible to foster the education of the girl–child. The researcher explores the perception of teachers and students in four selected schools (code named A, B, C, D) in the community and analyses the extent of gender–equality in the school curriculum. Using a qualitative research approach that employed the phenomenological method of enquiry, face–to–face interviews were conducted with 20 teachers in four secondary schools, five in each school. Questionnaires were served on 200 girl–students of Grades 11 and 12, fifty per school selected using a purposeful sampling method. The curriculum in selected subjects of the secondary schools was analysed. The analyses of all the research instruments led to the discovery of the factors influencing the infusion of human rights education and values in the teaching–learning of the selected schools. Top on the list of these factors are the problems of teacher–student ignorance of human rights education and values. Other factors are gender–fair deficiency in the school curriculum, school–slum environments and combined religio–cultural dilemmas that place constraints on the educational environment of girl–children in the multicultural community. To foster the education of the girl–child, thirteen curriculum guidelines clustered under three broad groups are proposed. Firstly, under the modified curriculum content, subjects that project human rights education and values need to be made compulsory for all students, though at different class levels. Subjects with low or no gender–fair objectives need to be modified in order that human rights education and values could be taught across the school curriculum. Secondly, there is the need for context–relevant curriculum planning that embraces cultural and religious issues and communicating values in the schooling system. Thirdly, a democratic school atmosphere is the product of curriculum efforts that is geared towards training genderresponsive teachers, ensuring gender equality and promoting extracurricular activities favouring multicultural awareness and respect among students. This research contributes to the development of a curriculum engaged in advancing human rights education and values of the girl–child especially in patriarchal urban settings of East–Africa. It draws attention to the often neglected educational empowerment of the girl–child to foster her role and to provide opportunities in a contemporary global environment. / Thesis (PhD (Teaching and Learning))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.