Key words: secondary victim, personal misfortune, psychiatric injury The aim of the thesis is to analyse secondary victims in Czech and English law. In general, secondary victim is recognised as a person whose harm was caused by harm occurred to an immediate victim. However, Czech law does not provide a detailed framework as well as the interpretation of the law by judicial decisions and literature. Therefore, the purpose is to define secondary victims and scrutinize their legal rights. The thesis is divided into three parts. The first one focuses on Czech law. The purpose is to outline secondary victims in accordance with current legislation and court decisions. It presents a description of the former law serving as a useful tool for understanding the applicable law. The analysis of the section 2959 follows, constituting, in the case of death or severe injury, legal rights for persons with close ties to an immediate victim. The positive approach could be perceived as a response to a criticism towards the former legislation. The Civil Code removed fixed amounts of compensation and unified the process into a single section. Furthermore, an inability of secondary victims with close ties to receive compensation for their psychiatric injury is scrutinised. Multiple questions arise from the section 2971...

Cette enquête vise à proposer une issue à un problème simple : l'histoire des rapports entre nature et société dans les Alpes au XVIIIe et au XIXe siècles ne peut se faire qu'au prix d'une intense réflexion sur les instruments d'objectivation de ces rapports, c'est-à-dire au prix d'une remise en question de ce qui est naturel pour l'enquête historique (Livre 1). En repoussant les schèmes de pensée qui accueillent si aisément au sein de l'analyse, la nature naturelle du naturaliste du siècle des Lumières, il s'agira de se rendre capable de prendre en considération le type de relation que l'immense majorité des individus a toujours entretenu avec certains non-humains jusqu'à une époque très récente : ce qu'on doit appeler la nature-propriété. Sous l'Ancien Régime, la nature était toujours et avant tout quelque chose que quelqu'un possédait juridiquement avant d'être quelque chose qu'une infime minorité regardait, contemplait ou observait. Cette chose constituait l'individu propriétaire : elle le renforçait, augmentait sa puissance d'agir, l'enrichissait face aux autres ; ce qu'on peut désigner par la « nature-richesse(+) » qui servit à l'État pour le calcul des capacités contributives de ces propriétaires contribuables sur lesquels reposaient la stabilité du collectif politique et la richesse nationale (Livre 2). Dans certaines situations particulières, appelées « accidents » par les acteurs, cette nature a aussi pu apparaître comme une nature-perte : lorsque ces propriétaires contribuables perdaient tout ou partie de leur nature-propriété. Cette perte les affaiblissait, diminuait leur puissance d'agir, les appauvrissait face aux autres ; ce qu'on peut désigner par la « nature-richesse(–) » qui conduisit le collectif politique, auquel appartenaient ces individus diminués face aux autres, à instituer des procédures permettant de réévaluer puis de compenser les variations, passagères ou définitives, de leur capacité contributive individuelle (Livre 3). Ainsi, au lieu de se servir des discontinuités naturelles pour penser les discontinuités sociales, les sujets dauphinois, puis, plus tard, les citoyens isérois, utilisèrent les catégories élémentaires de la vie sociale, en l'occurrence l'impôt et la propriété, pour penser leurs rapports à certains non-humains comme la terre, la forêt, l'orage, la grêle, l'eau, le bétail, les fruits, l'herbe et les montagnes. Or, cette perspective d'analyse n'apparaît renversée que pour l'enquêteur qui a déjà la tête à l'envers ; la possibilité d'écrire cette histoire sans renverser personne est précisément l'enjeu d'une refonte de la perspective d'analyse classique de l'histoire environnementale. Ce travail rend donc compte des raisons pour lesquelles il ne faut plus étudier les « inter-relations entre nature et culture », et des efforts à fournir pour parvenir à « écrire la nature » : en se donnant les moyens réflexifs de décrire des systèmes de relations complexes, largement produits au sein du champ bureaucratique de l'État moderne, pour établir des grilles d'équivalence naturelles entre les individus, selon un critère social naturalisant : la richesse. Une telle approche permet alors de comprendre comment la nature a pu rendre pauvre et comment se sont co-construits les processus de naturalisation de la pauvreté et d'objectivation de la nature (Livre 4). / L'auteur n'a pas fourni de résumé en anglais.

Contenu1) (Introduction) Parren, N. (2017). Le naturel cognitif (possible) des croyances de sorcellerie: une exploration de la littérature existante. Journal de la cognition et de la culture, 17 (5), 396-418.2) Boyer, P., & Parren, N. (2015). L'information liée à la menace suggère la compétence: un facteur possible dans la propagation des rumeurs. PloS un, 10 (6), e0128421.3) Parren, N., & Boyer, P. (Soumis). Préférence pour les sources d'informations liées aux menaces. PloS un4) Parren, N., & Boyer, P. (Soumis). L'effet de vérité: fluidité ou consensus implicite? Conscience et Cognition5) Parren, N., van Leeuwen, F., Miton, H., & Boyer, P. (manuscrit non publié) Mésaventure, Agence, et Contre-Intuitivité Minimale6) Conclusion chapitre / 1) (Introduction) Parren, N. (2017). The (possible) Cognitive Naturalness of Witchcraft Beliefs: An Exploration of the Existing Literature. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 17(5), 396-418.2) Boyer, P., & Parren, N. (2015). Threat-related information suggests competence: a possible factor in the spread of rumors. PloS one, 10(6), e0128421.3) Parren, N., & Boyer, P. (Submitted). Preference for Sources of Threat-Related Information. PloS one4) Parren, N., & Boyer, P. (Submitted). The Truth Effect: Fluency or Implicit Consensus? Consciousness and Cognition5) Parren, N., van Leeuwen, F., Miton, H., & Boyer, P. (unpublished manuscript) Misfortune, Agency, and Minimal Counter-Intuitiveness6) Conclusion chapter

Esta dissertação é fruto de um estudo etnográfico de aproximadamente três anos e meio de pesquisa com lideranças indígenas kanhgág no Rio Grande do Sul, estado mais ao sul do Brasil. Baseado em análise de rede de relações sociais, nós estudamos as relações diádicas entre humanos e não humanos e clusters de rede que compõem a cosmopolítica kanhgág. Com o intuito de compreender estas relações nos apoiamos em teorias antropológicas consistentes com o estudo de corporalidades Ameríndias. Estas referências nos permitem analisar as relações políticas, alianças, guerra, parentesco, saúde e infortúnios, tomando o corpo não como uma experiência infra-sociológica. O corpo, nesta etnografia, se apresenta como um microcosmo social no qual a agência do conhecimento e das práticas xamânicas são experienciadas, sendo estas referenciadas nas noções de tempo e espaço kanhgág. No conjunto destas relações, encontramos os principais mediadores entre o cosmos, humanos e não humanos caracterizados a partir das corporalidades dos pã’i (lideranças), kujá (xamãs curadores) e pëj (guardadores dos mortos). / This dissertation is the result of a three and a half year long ethnographic study about indigenous kanhgág leaders, in Rio Grande do Sul, the southernmost state of Brazil. Based on social network analysis we looked into the dyadic relations between humans and non humans and network clusters that make up the kanhgág cosmopolitics. In order to understand these relations we rely on anthropological theories consistent with studies of Amerindian corporalities. These references allow us to analyze political relations, alliances, war, kinship, health and misfortune taking the body not as an infra-sociologic experience. The body, in this ethnography, presents itself as a social microcosm where the agency of shamanic knowledge and practices are experienced, and refer to specific notions of kanhgág time and space. Among these relations, we find leading mediators, intermediaries between the cosmos, humans and non humans, embodied in the pã’i (leaders) the shamans (spiritual healers) and the pëj (dead keepers).

Esta dissertação é fruto de um estudo etnográfico de aproximadamente três anos e meio de pesquisa com lideranças indígenas kanhgág no Rio Grande do Sul, estado mais ao sul do Brasil. Baseado em análise de rede de relações sociais, nós estudamos as relações diádicas entre humanos e não humanos e clusters de rede que compõem a cosmopolítica kanhgág. Com o intuito de compreender estas relações nos apoiamos em teorias antropológicas consistentes com o estudo de corporalidades Ameríndias. Estas referências nos permitem analisar as relações políticas, alianças, guerra, parentesco, saúde e infortúnios, tomando o corpo não como uma experiência infra-sociológica. O corpo, nesta etnografia, se apresenta como um microcosmo social no qual a agência do conhecimento e das práticas xamânicas são experienciadas, sendo estas referenciadas nas noções de tempo e espaço kanhgág. No conjunto destas relações, encontramos os principais mediadores entre o cosmos, humanos e não humanos caracterizados a partir das corporalidades dos pã’i (lideranças), kujá (xamãs curadores) e pëj (guardadores dos mortos). / This dissertation is the result of a three and a half year long ethnographic study about indigenous kanhgág leaders, in Rio Grande do Sul, the southernmost state of Brazil. Based on social network analysis we looked into the dyadic relations between humans and non humans and network clusters that make up the kanhgág cosmopolitics. In order to understand these relations we rely on anthropological theories consistent with studies of Amerindian corporalities. These references allow us to analyze political relations, alliances, war, kinship, health and misfortune taking the body not as an infra-sociologic experience. The body, in this ethnography, presents itself as a social microcosm where the agency of shamanic knowledge and practices are experienced, and refer to specific notions of kanhgág time and space. Among these relations, we find leading mediators, intermediaries between the cosmos, humans and non humans, embodied in the pã’i (leaders) the shamans (spiritual healers) and the pëj (dead keepers).

Esta dissertação é fruto de um estudo etnográfico de aproximadamente três anos e meio de pesquisa com lideranças indígenas kanhgág no Rio Grande do Sul, estado mais ao sul do Brasil. Baseado em análise de rede de relações sociais, nós estudamos as relações diádicas entre humanos e não humanos e clusters de rede que compõem a cosmopolítica kanhgág. Com o intuito de compreender estas relações nos apoiamos em teorias antropológicas consistentes com o estudo de corporalidades Ameríndias. Estas referências nos permitem analisar as relações políticas, alianças, guerra, parentesco, saúde e infortúnios, tomando o corpo não como uma experiência infra-sociológica. O corpo, nesta etnografia, se apresenta como um microcosmo social no qual a agência do conhecimento e das práticas xamânicas são experienciadas, sendo estas referenciadas nas noções de tempo e espaço kanhgág. No conjunto destas relações, encontramos os principais mediadores entre o cosmos, humanos e não humanos caracterizados a partir das corporalidades dos pã’i (lideranças), kujá (xamãs curadores) e pëj (guardadores dos mortos). / This dissertation is the result of a three and a half year long ethnographic study about indigenous kanhgág leaders, in Rio Grande do Sul, the southernmost state of Brazil. Based on social network analysis we looked into the dyadic relations between humans and non humans and network clusters that make up the kanhgág cosmopolitics. In order to understand these relations we rely on anthropological theories consistent with studies of Amerindian corporalities. These references allow us to analyze political relations, alliances, war, kinship, health and misfortune taking the body not as an infra-sociologic experience. The body, in this ethnography, presents itself as a social microcosm where the agency of shamanic knowledge and practices are experienced, and refer to specific notions of kanhgág time and space. Among these relations, we find leading mediators, intermediaries between the cosmos, humans and non humans, embodied in the pã’i (leaders) the shamans (spiritual healers) and the pëj (dead keepers).

La partie « création » de ce mémoire intitulée Velours Façonné consiste en un recueil de sept contes, incluant un récit-cadre (La ronde des vieillards), racontés par des voix multiples appartenant aux membres d’une Résidence pour personnes âgées visitée par un conteur, Monsieur Doré. Ces contes ont pour thématique un rite de passage de la vie humaine tels que définis par l’ethnologue et folkloriste Arnold van Gennep dans Rites de passage paru en 1909 : l’épreuve de la peur chez l’enfant (Chapeau d’paille, Agathe), le rite initiatique pubertaire (Le Carnet), l’initiation par le voyage (En dormant comme un loir), l’entrée dans la vieillesse (Tarabiscotés) et le deuil (Les voix éclatées). Ces deux fils conducteurs – la figure traditionnelle du conteur et les rites initiatiques – organisent donc les différents types de contes de ce recueil en fonction de temporalités et de personnages diversifiés. Ces récits sont unis par un ton nostalgique et par le désir de donner une voix aux objets et à la nature, soit par un travail sur l’animisme et la miniaturisation. À la manière de George Sand, pour qui le merveilleux et la fiction remettent à l’endroit un monde chaotique et dont l’écriture déclenche « un rite de passage du monde urbain de 1848, déchiré par la violence politique, au monde des campagnes où règne la solidarité » (Lagrave, 2012 : 130), je veux faciliter l’entrée dans un monde imaginaire et penser mes contes comme des récits initiatiques et des rites pour le lecteur. C’est ainsi que j’explore le conte comme rite de passage en soi grâce au narrateur qui fera office, en quelque sorte, de la figure du conteur chez Sand, le Chanvreur. Bien que La Petite Fadette (1849) soit un roman, il est possible d’y retrouver, du point de vue formel et structurel, des emprunts au conte merveilleux. La fin heureuse, digne d’un conte classique, n’exclut qu’un seul des protagonistes : Sylvinet, l’aîné des jumeaux de la famille Barbeau, dont la partie « recherche » de ce mémoire tentera de retracer la trajectoire malheureuse. Les craintes superstitieuses de leurs parents ainsi que les avertissements de la sage-femme du village qui seront ignorés sont autant d’intersignes annonciateurs de la destinée de Sylvinet, de son malheur comme du bonheur de son frère. Proposant « une lecture interprétative de la littérature qui travaille à articuler poétique du texte et ethnologie du symbolique » (Scarpa, 2013), l’ethnocritique me permettra d’envisager les logiques culturelles du texte à partir des rites initiatiques des garçons, qui, pour accéder au monde naturel et social, empruntent la voie des oiseaux (Fabre, 1986). Victime du sort, Sylvinet est également un « personnage liminaire » (Scarpa, 2009; Ménard, 2017), héros négatif et « raté » puisqu’il ne réussira pas son rite de passage vers l’âge adulte et son intégration dans son groupe social. / The “creative writing” portion of this thesis, entitled Velours Façonné consists of a collection of seven tales, including a frame story (La ronde des vieillards), narrated by multiple voices, belonging to the residents of an elderly people home who are visited by a storyteller, Monsieur Doré. These tales share a common theme, that of the rite of passage in a human life, such as it is defined by the ethnologue and folklorist Arnold Van Gennep in his Rites de passage, published in 1909: the test of fear for a child (Chapeau d’paille, Agathe), the initiatory puberty rite (Le Carnet), the initiation through travel (En dormant comme un loir), entering old age (Tarabiscotés) and grief (Les voix éclatées). These two guiding principles – the traditional figure of the storyteller and the initiatory rites – structure the different types of tales of this collection in function of the temporalities of the diversified characters. These stories are united by a nostalgic tone and by the desire to give a voice to objects and to nature, which is attempted by a work of miniaturisation and animism. In George Sand’s style, for whom the marvelous and the fictive turn the chaotic world right side up and whose writing triggers “a rite of passage from the urban world of 1848, torn apart by political violence, to the world of the countryside where solidarity reigns1” (Lagrave, 2012 : 130), I want to facilitate the entry in an imaginary world and think my stories as initiatory in and of themselves and as rites for the reader. That is how I explore the tale as a rite of passage in itself, thanks to a narrator who will act, in a way, as the figure of the storyteller of Sand, the Chanvreur. Although La Petite Fadette (1849) is a novel, it is possible to find in it, from a structural and formal point of view, borrowings for the fairy tale. The happy ending, which would be typical in a fairy tale, excludes only one of the protagonists: Sylvinet, the elder of the twins of the Barbeau family. It is for this character that the “research” portion of this thesis attempts to retrace unfortunate trajectory. The superstitious fears of their parents, as well as the warnings of the village’s midwife, which will be ignored, are premonitory signs (intersigns) announcing both Sylvinet’s destiny and his misfortunes, as well as and his brother’s future happiness and fortunes. Ethnocritisism will allow me to envision the cultural logics of the text from the initiation rites of boys, who, in order to gain access to the natural and social world, take the path of the birds (Fabre, 1986). Victim of fate, Sylvinet is also a “liminary character” (Scarpa, 2009; Ménard, 2017), negative hero and “failed” because his rite of passage is failed and he therefore will not reach adulthood, nor will he integrate with his social group.

Moral judgments and moral emotions are a ubiquitous feature of social interactions. Humans decide quickly and intuitively whether an action is morally right or wrong. Schadenfreude and sympathy, as emotional reactions to the misfortunes of others, are prototypical moral emotions. So far, however, little evidence exists concerning children’s understanding of schadenfreude. Within three studies, we investigated the experience of schadenfreude and sympathy among N = 364 children of different age groups. We interviewed the children while showing them picture stories. In the picture stories, we varied the behavior of the protagonist prior to a misfortune: (1) whether his behavior had been morally right or wrong, (2) whether the protagonist attained his goal, (3) whether the protagonist was responsible for the misfortune. In addition, in one study we varied (4) the emotional relationship of the interviewed children to the protagonist. Furthermore, we asked the children to decide whether they want to sit next to the protagonist or do him a favor. Results show that children experience sympathy as well as schadenfreude at the age of 4 years. Sympathy is more likely to arise when the protagonists of a story are likable, when these actors typically pursue morally positive goals, and if they are not responsible for their misfortune. In contrast, schadenfreude is more likely when the protagonist is disliked, when actors pursue immoral goals and if they are responsible for their misfortune. In addition, sympathy increases approach (helping behavior, sitting next to the agent and doing favors), whereas schadenfreude increases avoidance tendencies.

This essay provides an attempt to reflect the notions of violence, right or law and fate in Benjamin’s Zur Kritik der Gewalt, in order to clarify his very dense historical-philosophical reflection on the constitutive relation between violence and law. In contrast to what is most often the case, this essay will not address the notion of divine violence in a direct sense, but mainly focus on Benjamin’s discussion on right and law. The complex of his historical reflection, his attempt to articulate what he calls the “historical function” not only of violence, but also of law, is crucially related to the notion of fate. First and foremost fate is what turns the suspicion of the perniciousness of this historical function into a certainty, actualizing its destruction as something obligatory in terms of divine violence, by deepening the analysis and revealing the fundamental relation between law and violence. By pointing out the function of violence within the sphere of law, Benjamin not only states that violence cannot be thought otherwise than in relation to this sphere, but also that the relation between law and violence has to be thought in terms of the “uncertainty of the legal threat”. The deepest meaning of both the “uncertainty” and “the legal threat” emerges from the “sphere of fate”, and by reflecting this notion this essay will try to outline the legal complex and the meaning of fate in terms of guilt, misfortune and judgement, and how it is constituted with reference to the notion of “bare life” – that is, the marked bearer of guilt. The complexity of the relation between violence and law shows itself in the circumstance that this “bearer” in terms of guilt also becomes the bearer of the relation itself, bearing the validity of law, or more precise, the being in force of law. This also conceptualizes law as a phenomenon of frontiers, in a double sense that will explain the meaning of guilt and fate in terms of infringement, but also the legal relation to violence understood as a line constituting an inside and an outside within the sphere of law itself. And this will also explain why the meaning of justification of violence – significantly related to fate and the phenomenon of this line – never can be understood ethically.

Moral judgments and moral emotions are a ubiquitous feature of social interactions. Humans decide quickly and intuitively whether an action is morally right or wrong. Schadenfreude and sympathy, as emotional reactions to the misfortunes of others, are prototypical moral emotions. So far, however, little evidence exists concerning children’s understanding of schadenfreude. Within three studies, we investigated the experience of schadenfreude and sympathy among N = 364 children of different age groups. We interviewed the children while showing them picture stories. In the picture stories, we varied the behavior of the protagonist prior to a misfortune: (1) whether his behavior had been morally right or wrong, (2) whether the protagonist attained his goal, (3) whether the protagonist was responsible for the misfortune. In addition, in one study we varied (4) the emotional relationship of the interviewed children to the protagonist. Furthermore, we asked the children to decide whether they want to sit next to the protagonist or do him a favor. Results show that children experience sympathy as well as schadenfreude at the age of 4 years. Sympathy is more likely to arise when the protagonists of a story are likable, when these actors typically pursue morally positive goals, and if they are not responsible for their misfortune. In contrast, schadenfreude is more likely when the protagonist is disliked, when actors pursue immoral goals and if they are responsible for their misfortune. In addition, sympathy increases approach (helping behavior, sitting next to the agent and doing favors), whereas schadenfreude increases avoidance tendencies.