The aim of the thesis is to examine a unique source so called The White Registers by Jan Jeníšek of Újezd and to Svrčovec (†1565) dating between 1539-1561. The lower nobleman Jan Jeníšek lived in the Svrčovec fortress close to the town of Klatovy. He recorded his private notes for his memory. He wrote about his economical acitivies including trade and legal matters and disputes which he led with neighbouring noblemen, burghers and subject people. Thanks to regular, frequent and detailed records the White Registers allow to introduce everyday life of a member of the lower nobility of the 16th century.

This article analyzes the process of paradigm change in Law, a non-peaceful transition from a model developed in the XX century to a new law which will sit throughout the XXI century. The changes that have occurred from this new legal paradigm are not superficial, but rather crossing the structures and foundations of modern legal ideology and technique that underlies, as the constitutionalization of national law, the internationalization of economic relations, the development of treaties or development of Community law. Furthermore, the author refers to the impact that this change took place in the theoretical construction of taxes and the delimitation of the scope of the tax phenomenon. / El presente artículo analiza el proceso de cambio de paradigma en el Derecho, un tránsito no pacífico entre un modelo ideado en el siglo XX a un nuevo Derecho que se asentará a lo largo del siglo XXI. Los cambios que se han producido a partir de este nuevo paradigma jurídico no son superficiales, sino que atraviesan las estructuras y bases de la ideología jurídica moderna y la técnica que la subyace, como la constitucionalización del derecho nacional, la internacionalización de las relaciones económicas, el desarrollo de los tratados o el desarrollo del Derecho comunitario. Asimismo, el autor hace referencia a la incidencia que produjo este cambio en la construcción teórica del tributo y la delimitación de los alcances del fenómeno tributario.

Text in Afrikaans / Wanneer die konstitusionele invloed op borgstelling in die bree bespreek word, moet die bepalings van die Grondwet 200 van 1993 met inbegrip van die Handves van Menseregte en die onderliggende waardes, beginsels en doelstellings daartoe binne die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks inaggeneem word. Die algemene transformasie van die Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskap in 'n verteenwoordigende demokrasie, veelvolkigheid van die Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskap, eskalerende misdaadsyfer, wantroue van die gemeenskap in die regstelsel en die beklemtoning van fundamentele regte is aspekte wat figureer binne die Suid-Afrikaanse borgtogreg. Die tradisionele benadering dat die bewyslas op die beskuldigde rus tydens borgtogverrigtinge is binne die moderne borgtogreg en in die lig van die Grondwet 200 van 1993 asook die Tweede Strafproseswysigingswet 75 van 1995 onvanpas. As algemene reel behoort die bewyslas by 'n borgaansoek op die staat te rus op oorwig van waarskynlikhede. In sekere spesifiek omskrewe gevalle soos vervat inartikel60(11) van die Tweede Strafproseswysigingswet rus die bewyslas op die beskuldigde. Hierdie beperking is regverdigbaar in tenne van artike133 van die Grondwet 200 van 1993. Daar bestaan verder nie voldoende rede om nie gebruik te maak van die bewyslasbegrip as gevestigde prosessuele maatreel tydens borgverrigtinge nie. In die moderne Suid-Afrikaanse borgtogreg moet 'n balans gehandhaaf word tussen die belange van die gemeenskap en die fundamentele regte van die individu. Die howe moet in elke spesifieke geval· inhoud aan hierdie beginsel verleen. / When the effect of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 200 of 1993 on bail is considered, the transformation of the South African community, multi-racial society, high crimerate, disillusionment of the community with regard to the courtsystem and importance of fundamental rights must be regarded. The traditional approach that the onus is upon the accused (in his capacity as applicant) to prove on a balance of probability that the court should exercise its discretion in favour of granting bail and, in discharging this burden, he must show that the interests of justice will not be prejudiced, is in terms ofthe Constitution 200 of 1993 and the Criminal Procedure Second Amendment Act 75 of 1995 unacceptable. It is submitted that the onus should be on the State to place grounds before the Court why there should be an exercise of discretion in favour of the State for further detention of the individual. In terms of certain spesific crimes as described in article 60(11) of the Criminal Procedure Second Amendment Act theis placed on the accused. This exception is acceptable as it prescribes to the requirements in article 33 of the Constitution 200 of 1993. It is submitted that there is no reason why onus as excepted evidentiary rule should not be used in bail applications. A balance between the interest of the community and fundamental rights of the individual must be kept in modern law regarding bail. It is in the hands of the courts to substantiate this balance. / Criminal & Procedural Law / LL.M. (Criminal & Procedural Law)

Text in Afrikaans / Wanneer die konstitusionele invloed op borgstelling in die bree bespreek word, moet die bepalings van die Grondwet 200 van 1993 met inbegrip van die Handves van Menseregte en die onderliggende waardes, beginsels en doelstellings daartoe binne die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks inaggeneem word. Die algemene transformasie van die Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskap in 'n verteenwoordigende demokrasie, veelvolkigheid van die Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskap, eskalerende misdaadsyfer, wantroue van die gemeenskap in die regstelsel en die beklemtoning van fundamentele regte is aspekte wat figureer binne die Suid-Afrikaanse borgtogreg. Die tradisionele benadering dat die bewyslas op die beskuldigde rus tydens borgtogverrigtinge is binne die moderne borgtogreg en in die lig van die Grondwet 200 van 1993 asook die Tweede Strafproseswysigingswet 75 van 1995 onvanpas. As algemene reel behoort die bewyslas by 'n borgaansoek op die staat te rus op oorwig van waarskynlikhede. In sekere spesifiek omskrewe gevalle soos vervat inartikel60(11) van die Tweede Strafproseswysigingswet rus die bewyslas op die beskuldigde. Hierdie beperking is regverdigbaar in tenne van artike133 van die Grondwet 200 van 1993. Daar bestaan verder nie voldoende rede om nie gebruik te maak van die bewyslasbegrip as gevestigde prosessuele maatreel tydens borgverrigtinge nie. In die moderne Suid-Afrikaanse borgtogreg moet 'n balans gehandhaaf word tussen die belange van die gemeenskap en die fundamentele regte van die individu. Die howe moet in elke spesifieke geval· inhoud aan hierdie beginsel verleen. / When the effect of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 200 of 1993 on bail is considered, the transformation of the South African community, multi-racial society, high crimerate, disillusionment of the community with regard to the courtsystem and importance of fundamental rights must be regarded. The traditional approach that the onus is upon the accused (in his capacity as applicant) to prove on a balance of probability that the court should exercise its discretion in favour of granting bail and, in discharging this burden, he must show that the interests of justice will not be prejudiced, is in terms ofthe Constitution 200 of 1993 and the Criminal Procedure Second Amendment Act 75 of 1995 unacceptable. It is submitted that the onus should be on the State to place grounds before the Court why there should be an exercise of discretion in favour of the State for further detention of the individual. In terms of certain spesific crimes as described in article 60(11) of the Criminal Procedure Second Amendment Act theis placed on the accused. This exception is acceptable as it prescribes to the requirements in article 33 of the Constitution 200 of 1993. It is submitted that there is no reason why onus as excepted evidentiary rule should not be used in bail applications. A balance between the interest of the community and fundamental rights of the individual must be kept in modern law regarding bail. It is in the hands of the courts to substantiate this balance. / Criminal and Procedural Law / LL.M. (Criminal & Procedural Law)

The basis of any contract is the agreement of two or more parties. In traditional Swedish and English contract law theory, a contract is formed through the reciprocal exchange of an offer and a corresponding acceptance. Together, these declarations of will represent the common intent of the parties, which binds them to their respective contractual obligations and determines the contents of the contract. In the contemporary commercial sector, the use of standard forms (i.e., sets of terms that have not been individually negotiated) has become more prevalent. This has led to the rise of a particular legal issue, called the “battle of forms”: a situation where both parties refer to their own, conflicting, standard forms during the formation of contract, where after they proceed in fulfilling their contractual obligations. Consequently, the exchanged declarations of will lack conformity in these cases, and there is no discernible common will of the parties. In order to conclude that a contract has been formed, and to decide its contents, this conflict needs to be resolved. The traditional approach to resolving the issue of battle of forms in English law is to regard the last referenced standard terms in the contractual negotiations as an offer (or counter-offer), and the other party’s conduct as an acceptance. This approach largely corresponds with how the issue likely would be resolved according to traditional Swedish contract law principles. However, in the legal scientific environments of both Sweden and England, ideas and concepts of a modern contract law has developed. Included therein is the idea of taking a more flexible stance with regard to the formation of contract. When viewing the contractual relationship holistically, and partly liberated from the offer-acceptance approach, the battle of forms can be resolved by letting the court construe the different sets of terms together, and re-place conflicting terms with suitable substitutes by implication. These modern concepts have partly manifested in recent English precedence regarding the battle of forms. Considering that the patterns of development with respect to the modern law of contract are similar in Swedish and English law, there is reason to believe that a similar “new” approach to the battle of forms might be adopted by Swedish courts as well.

Inscrits dans le contexte actuel de mondialisation, le développement et la promotion remarqués des modes amiables de règlement des différends (MARD) témoignent d’une nouvelle appréhension de la production normative où le justiciable est placé au cœur du droit, l’entente se substitue à l’autorité, la discussion et le dialogue prévalent. Tandis que le temps économique ne semble plus cadrer avec le temps judiciaire dans ce contexte concurrentiel qui exige des réactions rapides, les MARD répondent à une demande concrète des entreprises. Placées au centre de ce processus vivant et complexe, les entreprises adaptent leur stratégie de gestion des conflits en faisant appel à des moyens qui servent le mieux leurs intérêts. La prévention des risques est une priorité, la gestion de l’aléa, un défi quotidien et l’adaptation au contexte évolutif à l’espace et au temps, la marque de l’efficience des instruments normatifs adoptés. Les MARD laissent ainsi entrevoir la résurgence de la question de la légitimité du droit et de la justice étatique. On a qualifié ce phénomène de justice douce mais s’agit-il d’une forme de justice fut-elle alternative ? La réponse à cette question dépend de la compréhension globale que nous avons de ce phénomène. Cette réflexion se propose ainsi de le définir bien plus que comme la seule mise en œuvre de modes consensuels de traitement des différends, mais, véritablement comme l’expression d’un ordre juridique en développement. Approuvé par ses principaux usagers, les MARD deviennent un outil efficace de justice équitable. La notion de justice est alors envisagée, non pas dans son sens organique, mais substantiel, la justice pouvant être aussi consensuelle. / As part of the current context of globalisation, the development and promotion of the alternative dispute resolution (ADR) clearly show a new approach in the production of norms, whereby the litigant is positioned at the very heart of the rule of law, and where mutual understanding replaces authority, and discussion and dialogue prevail. While economic time no longer correlates with judicial time in the competitive framework, which by its very nature demands rapid reactions, the ADR process meets concrete corporate needs. At the core of this active and complex process of globalisation, corporations adapt their conflict management strategies through ways which best serve their interests. Risk prevention is a priority, risk management a daily challenge and the adaptation to the evolving context, in space and time, the sign of efficiency of the normative tools used. Thus, ADR and its involvement in the globalisation process, raises anew the issue of the legitimacy of law and court justice. This phenomenon has been qualified as negotiated or consensual justice, but is it at its core a form of justice, even an alternative one? The answer to this question mainly depends on the overall understanding of the ADR phenomenon. That is why this thesis proposes to view it as more than just a simple implementation of a consensual dispute resolution tool as it is often depicted, but more genuinely as the expression of a developing legal order. Approved by its main users, the ADR process has become an instrument of fair and effective justice and has captured the concept of justice in its essence rather than in its structure.

Ce mémoire analyse la place juridique du marchand dans les sociétés camerounaise et québécoise. Le droit a toujours cherché à catalyser les activités des marchands en régulant l’accès à leur profession, en contrôlant leurs activités et en leur imposant de nombreuses obligations. La préoccupation des législateurs québécois et camerounais vis-à-vis de l’entité qu’est le marchand est palpable, les nombreuses lois mises sur pied pour encadrer ce personnage en témoignent. Le droit camerounais et le droit québécois abordent le sujet du marchand de façon différente. Nous verrons que dans l’appellation et dans le régime applicable à cette entité, le législateur québécois et son homologue camerounais se retrouvent la majorité du temps aux antipodes l’un de l’autre, mais il arrive parfois que leurs règles présentent des similitudes. Les nombreuses règles mises en place par les législateurs pour réguler les actions du marchand vont nous amener à examiner l’importance que ce dernier a au sein de la société. Conscients du pouvoir que le marchand peut avoir, les législateurs n’ont-ils pas fixé un grand nombre de règles par peur que ce dernier abuse de ce pouvoir ? Cette interrogation nous mènera au dernier volet de ce mémoire qui consistera à analyser les rapports de forces entre le marchand et les consommateurs premièrement, et entre le marchand et l’État en seconde place. L’intérêt de cette recherche est en premier lieu juridique évidemment. En effet, au cours de notre étude, nous verrons des notions telles que la commercialité et ses éléments constitutifs et nous ouvrirons le débat sur son utilité et sa désuétude. Nous aborderons également le rôle joué par le commerçant dans le processus de globalisation du droit et la création d’un droit post-moderne. En plus d’avoir un intérêt juridique, ce sujet révèle également un intérêt socio-économique car il nous amènera à aborder la notion de « commerçant de fait », une entité apparue à cause de la précarité économique et sociale à laquelle la majorité des pays africains fait face. / This study analyzes the legal place of the merchant in Cameroonian and Quebec societies. The law has always sought to catalyze the activities of merchants by regulating access to their profession, controlling their activities and imposing numerous obligations on them. The concern of Quebecer and Cameroonian legislators concerning the merchant is palpable, the large number of laws put in place to regulate this character testify to it. Cameroonian law and Quebec law approach the subject of the merchant in different ways. We will see that in the calling and in the regime applicable to this entity, the Quebecer legislator and its Cameroonian counterpart find themselves most of the time at opposite ends, but sometimes it happens that their rules present similarities. The rules put in place by legislators to regulate the actions of the merchant will lead us to examine the importance that the latter has within society. Aware of the power that the merchant can have, haven't the legislators set a large number of rules for fear that the latter will abuse this power? This question will lead us to the last part of this study which will consist in analyzing the balance of power between the merchant and the consumers first, and between the merchant and the State in second place. The interest of this research is obviously primarily legal. Indeed, during our study, we will see notions such as commerciality and its constituent elements and we will open the debate on its usefulness and its obsolescence. We will also discuss the role played by the merchant in the process of globalization of law and the creation of post-modern law. In addition to having a legal interest, this subject also reveals a socio-economic interest because it will lead us to approach the notion of "commerçant de fait", an entity that appeared because of the economic and social precariousness to which the majority of Africans countries faces.