This study examined the existing, or potential, risk of invasion by street trees into an urban forested park (Breithaupt Park, a 32.5 hectare semi-forested park, and its surrounding residential neighbourhood in the City of Kitchener.). The primary research question is: What are the spatial distribution and dispersal patterns of street trees and park trees in urban areas? For street populations, height, crown spread, diameter at breast height (DBH), tree condition, trunk condition and foliage transparency were measured. Qualitative tree health indicators were used to gauge the condition of the street tree population only. For trees in Breithaupt Park, a point-quarter sampling method combined with a line-plot sampling method was used. There were 33 identified (and several unidentified) species of street trees and 24 identified species of forest trees. Acer platanoides was the most abundant street tree species, while Acer saccharum was the most abundant forest tree species. 52% of the street tree population and 9% of the forest tree population were exotic species; however, the exotics were mainly species not originating from the nearby streets (i.e. Rhamnus cathartica). Despite the well-established population of exotic invasive species such as Acer platanoides on the streets, spatial assessment of the nearby forested park revealed that relatively few exotic species had actually established there. Acer platanoides composed 1.9% of all trees, 3.2% of all saplings and 2.7% of all seedlings in the forest sample. The four possible sources of Acer platanoides seeds were trees planted on the street, trees planted in backyards, the leaf drop site in the parking lot of Breithaupt Park (only in the fall) and trees potentially planted directly in the forest. Explanations for the lack of invasion by Acer platanoides (in particular) include: 1) houses located between Acer platanoides street trees and Breithaupt Park functioning as a barrier to seed dispersal; 2) the highway traversing the northeast corner of the park; 3) the short length of time since Acer platanoides street trees reached their age of maturity to produce enough viable seeds to invade the forest and the lag time in the establishment phase; 4) unique park characteristics; and 5) opposing predominant wind directions. While Acer platanoides may be more invasive under different circumstances, it was concluded that Acer platanoides is not currently invading the park at a considerable rate but may be tending towards a future invasion. The main recommendations are: 1) to not cut down the Acer platanoides currently growing as street trees as they do not pose a high risk of invasion (though this is specific to the current study); 2) to manage the forest for invasive species and remove and restore the ecology of the forest as necessary; 3) to remove Acer platanoides currently growing in the forest; and 4) to replace dead street trees with non-invasive, hardy native trees instead of the historical planting of Acer platanoides and other exotics, in case the risk of invasion changes because of climate or urban design changes.

The ne bis in idem-principle was founded in 1984 and is found in article 4 of the seventh additional protocol of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The interpretation of the principle has been uncertain, which resulted in a harmonization of all previous case law on the subject in the Zolotukhin case. The case concerns a Russian citizen who brought his girlfriend onto a Russian military base while being drunk. This action resulted in an administrative proceeding and a criminal proceeding. The Swedish and Norwegian tax systems concerning tax surcharge and tax fraud are very alike and both countries adapt a dual court system. The differences concerning the interpretation are found in four cases from 2009 and 2010, two from the Norwegian Supreme Court, one from the Swedish Supreme Administrative Court and one from the Swedish Supreme Court. Even though there are similarities in the argumentations in the cases there are also different approaches concerning how to interpret the principle. The Norwegian Supreme Court bases its judgements, especially in the second one after the Zolotukhin case, on the prerequisites established by the European Court of Human Rights and the purpose of the principle. The Swedish Supreme Court and the Swedish Supreme Administrative Court bases the judgements on previous case law and refers to the uncertain judicial area and affirms that there is room for interpretation for the national courts. Even though the argumentation in the judgements differ the national Supreme Courts reach the same answer to the question whether the tax systems are a breach of the ne bis in idem-principle. None of the courts finds that the national tax systems are an infringement of the ne bis in idem-principle.

Studien har sitt utgangspunkt i den norske regjeringens nordområdestrategi. Denne fremstårsom et ambisiøst dokument der regjeringen søker å påvirke utviklingen i en hel region, bådenasjonalt og internasjonalt. Hensikten med studien er å belyse nordområdestrategien fra ulikeperspektiv for på denne måten søke å oppnå en dypere forståelse for denne. De valgteperspektivene, konstruktivismen og realismen, er svært forskjellige og bidrar derfor i vesentliggrad til å få fram ulike forhold ved strategien.Studien er gjennomført ved å analysere ulike teorier knyttet til de ulike perspektiver og deretterbruke resultatet av dette i en gjennomgang av ulike deler av strategien. Ut fra dette er det ogsågjort noen overordnede vurderinger omkring strategien som dokument, budskapet og aktører.Resultatet av studien er at man ved ulike perspektiver observerer ulike forhold rundt et objektog at bruk av perspektiver virkelig kan gi dypere innsikt. Det er også påvist at strategien i formog oppbygging har rasjonelle trekk, men at den i innhold også i stor grad har konstruktivistisketrekk. Budskapet i strategien er videre ikke rettet mot en motstander, men fremstår i stor gradsom en invitasjon om samarbeid for å kunne nå en visjon som gagner alle aktører.Strategien har både en utenrikspolitisk og en innenrikspolitisk dimensjon og søker å virke ibegge områder. Innenrikspolitisk har dette form av policy og føringer, mens utenrikspolitisksøkes mer en tilslutning for strategiens hovedinnhold, både i forhold til Russland, men også EUog USA. / This study is based on the Norwegian government strategy for the northern areas. The strategyappears as an ambitious document where the Norwegian government is aiming to influence thedevelopment of the entire region.The purpose with this study is to enlighten the strategy for the northern areas from differentperspectives in order to achieve a deeper understanding. The selected perspectives, realism andconstructivism, are very different in nature and have brought to attention very particular aspectsof the strategy.The result of the study brings to attention that different perspectives give various observation ofan object and the use of these perspectives can give a deeper knowledge of the subject. It is alsoclear that the Norwegian strategy is constructed and built in line with rationalism, but the actualcontent of the strategy to a large extent also includes constructivist perspectives.The message in the strategy is not aiming toward an opponent, but is more like an invitation tocooperate to achieve a vision that is gaining all actors in the area.The strategy is covering both foreign and the domestic policy. Related to domestic policy, thestrategy is giving information and guidelines to the different actors. With regards to the foreignpolicy, the strategy is aiming to gain positive support and understanding for the overall intent,primarily from Russia, but also from the EU and the United States. / Avdelning: ALB – Slutet Mag. 3 C-upps. Hylla: Upps. ChP 07-09

This study examined the existing, or potential, risk of invasion by street trees into an urban forested park (Breithaupt Park, a 32.5 hectare semi-forested park, and its surrounding residential neighbourhood in the City of Kitchener.). The primary research question is: What are the spatial distribution and dispersal patterns of street trees and park trees in urban areas? For street populations, height, crown spread, diameter at breast height (DBH), tree condition, trunk condition and foliage transparency were measured. Qualitative tree health indicators were used to gauge the condition of the street tree population only. For trees in Breithaupt Park, a point-quarter sampling method combined with a line-plot sampling method was used. There were 33 identified (and several unidentified) species of street trees and 24 identified species of forest trees. Acer platanoides was the most abundant street tree species, while Acer saccharum was the most abundant forest tree species. 52% of the street tree population and 9% of the forest tree population were exotic species; however, the exotics were mainly species not originating from the nearby streets (i.e. Rhamnus cathartica). Despite the well-established population of exotic invasive species such as Acer platanoides on the streets, spatial assessment of the nearby forested park revealed that relatively few exotic species had actually established there. Acer platanoides composed 1.9% of all trees, 3.2% of all saplings and 2.7% of all seedlings in the forest sample. The four possible sources of Acer platanoides seeds were trees planted on the street, trees planted in backyards, the leaf drop site in the parking lot of Breithaupt Park (only in the fall) and trees potentially planted directly in the forest. Explanations for the lack of invasion by Acer platanoides (in particular) include: 1) houses located between Acer platanoides street trees and Breithaupt Park functioning as a barrier to seed dispersal; 2) the highway traversing the northeast corner of the park; 3) the short length of time since Acer platanoides street trees reached their age of maturity to produce enough viable seeds to invade the forest and the lag time in the establishment phase; 4) unique park characteristics; and 5) opposing predominant wind directions. While Acer platanoides may be more invasive under different circumstances, it was concluded that Acer platanoides is not currently invading the park at a considerable rate but may be tending towards a future invasion. The main recommendations are: 1) to not cut down the Acer platanoides currently growing as street trees as they do not pose a high risk of invasion (though this is specific to the current study); 2) to manage the forest for invasive species and remove and restore the ecology of the forest as necessary; 3) to remove Acer platanoides currently growing in the forest; and 4) to replace dead street trees with non-invasive, hardy native trees instead of the historical planting of Acer platanoides and other exotics, in case the risk of invasion changes because of climate or urban design changes.

Ekosystembaserad förvaltning bygger på en helhetlig syn på ekosystemen och dess förhållande till mänsklig aktivitet. Förvaltningsplanen för Barents hav utanför Norge är ett de längst framskridna försöken till implementering av denna förvaltningsmodell. Lång väg återstår dock för att uppnå de målsättningar som satts och särskilt gäller detta miljömålet för biologisk mångfald. Trots att fiskeri utpekats som den största påverkningsfaktorn på biologisk mångfald har det varit lite fokus på fiskeriernas negativa konsekvenser i arbetet med förvaltningsplanen. Den här uppsatsen försöker ge en bild av hur personer som jobbar inom förvaltningen ser på värdet med förvaltningsplanen, hur de uppfattar dess brister, och just varför de tror att fiskeriet negativa konsekvenser fått liten uppmärksamhet. Helhetlighet och tvärsektoriellt samarbete kunde konkluderas som de främsta värdena med förvaltningsplanen. Organisationsproblem, konservatism och maktkamper ansågs dock skapa problem för implementering och samarbete över sektorerna, bland annat genom genom dålig kommunikation mellan utredningsgrupper och den implementerande organisationen. Konservatism och maktkamp uttrycktes i form av en ovillighet från andra att samarbeta över sektorerna, att bryta det sektoriella tankesättet, och en vilja att värna om sin maktsfär.  Strukturella problem lyftes även fram som en av de bakomliggande anledninganar till att fiskeriernas negativa effekter inte fått mer fokus. Starkt kulturellt fäste, fokus på petroleumsverksamhet och dålig kunskapsförmedling var andra faktorer som togs upp. / Ecosystem based management is a management approach that seeks to integrate ecological, social and economic goals. The Norwegian management plan for the Barents Sea is one of the most advanced attempts to ecosystem based management. There is, however, still a long way to go to achieve the goals that have been set. This is especially true for the environmental objective of biodiversity. Even though fishing activity has been pointed out as one of the main reasons for biodiversity loss, little attention has been drawn to this fact. This paper therefore tries to give the answer to the questions of how people working within the management perceive the plan; the core values of it, its flaws, and why they beleave that the negative consequenses of fisheries have been out of focus.   The holistic viewpoint and the cooperation between the various sectors were the most emphazised values of the management plan. Organizational problems, conservatism, and power struggles were regarded as the main problems in trying to reach these goals. Lack of communication between  implementing bodies and investigating bodies was one example of this. Conservatism and power struggles were described as unwillingnes among individuals to adopt to the new intersectoral structures, and a wish to safeguard ones own power. The reason why the negative consequenses of fisheries have been out of focus, was also blamed on structural problems to a large extent. Other contributing factors were also the strong cultural role fisheries play in the norweigan society, the political focus on petroleum activity, and an insufficient spread of knowledge.

<p>After decades of investigation, we still have to deal withthe problem of environmental effects of the use of de-icingsalt on roads. Lacking useful indicators of the system, westill do not know the environmental utility of ameliorativemeasures taken. The thesis aims at</p><p>i) describing the system of de-icing practices and theirenvironmental effects with special reference to the exposure ofthe roadside environment to air-borne salt and damage to Norwayspruce seedlings and ii) at proposing indicators for afollow-up system. By collecting bulk deposition and relatingthe deposition pattern to factors concerning wind androad-maintenance characteristics, the influence of thesefactors on air-borne exposure is investigated. By exposingNorway spruce (<i>Picea abies</i>(L.) Karst.) seedlings to roadsideconditions the influence ofsalt exposure on the degree ofdamage is investigated. Based on a comparison of severalsystems of monitoring, improvements are suggested by proposingnew indicators for salt use and its environmental effects.</p><p>A large part of the salt that is applied on the road surfacewill be transported by air and deposited on the ground in theroadside. While the vast majority of the salt will be depositedwithin some tens of metres of the road, some may still be windtransported several hundred metres away. The wind directionplays an important role for the deposition already at adistance of some ten metres from the road. Wind speedinfluences the distance to which the salt is transported.Chloride concentration in unwashed needles collected after thesalting season is positively related to the bulk deposition ofCl during the exposure. The degree of damage can be describedby a sigmoid curve of response to the Cl concentration inneedles. Improvements to the follow-up system are suggested byproposing indicators of the driving forces, pressures, states,impacts and possible responses as regards the undesired impactson water resources, vegetation and the roadside scenery as asocietal asset.</p><p><b>Keywords:</b>road, de-icing salt, air-borne, environmentalimpact, vegetation damage, Norway spruce, seedling, follow-up,monitoring, indicator</p>

<p>This essay seeks to discern the motives of the aid allocation of western governments. The aim of the essay is to find differences between three highly similar aid donors: namely Denmark, Norway and Sweden, by doing a comparative case study according to the most similar case method. The research has been conducted by analyzing material from two ministers of each government, the Foreign Ministers and Ministers for International Development, by using a motive-analysis method. Social constructivism and structural realism have been used as a theoretical explanation. These two theories have been helpful in understanding how International Relations work.The results showed that although the three countries were highly similar, they showed some crucial differences in their motivation for aid allocation, especially in the case of Denmark. Theoretically, this could be explained by social constructivism, i.e. that the states have different priorities and experiences.</p>

<p>The purpose of this study is to illustrate why Norway is not a member of the EU from a rational choice perspective. In order to fulfil this purpose, two questions will constitute the framework of the study. These are:</p><p>1. What are the arguments of the EU-opposers in the Norwegian EU-debate?</p><p>2. Is it rational for Norway to stand outside the EU?</p><p>The first question was answered by analyzing and mapping out the arguments of the Norweigan EU-opponents and then using a critical literature study to analyse them. To demarcate the study, only the arguments of the parliamentary parties that are opposing a Norwegian EU-membership, and the official organisation Nei til EU (No to the EU) were included. The second question was tested by using a rational choice theory and a number of keywords from the classical rational actor model; objectives, alternatives, consequences and choice. These keywords constituted the main analyzing instrument of the study and was applied on the empirical material.</p><p>The main arguments of the opposers of a Norweigan EU-membership, are widely spoken democracy, freedom of action, environment and solidarity. The debate is hard to map out because of its general character but is very homogeneous. The second question is answered partly in the light of the first one and the result shows that it is rational for Norway to stay outside the EU today, but the question may have to be reassessed in the future, and probably will be since the debate is still so fervent.</p>

Thesis (Doctorat)--Université de Paris. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 324-340) and index.

Master's thesis. / Format: PDF. Bibl.