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Concentration of media ownership in the United States has increased throughout the 20th century and threatens to dilute competition between press outlets and to reduce the quality of news coverage available to the audience as a result. Several scholars have identified mass advertising as a major culprit in this concentration as well as in the resulting superficiality of news coverage. In the 1940s, a group of scholars formed the Commission on Freedom of the Press (COFOP) to discuss the perceived problem of irresponsible media and to prescribe remedies in the form of greater emphasis on the issues of the day and greater access to the press for individuals and groups not normally allowed a voice. Since COFOP published its recommendations, some scholars have argued that the press has adopted the "social responsibility" doctrine, thus replacing libertarianism. Others argue that an advertising model has become the natural heir to libertarianism in the press. / Master of Arts

Feminist philosophy of science has long been considered a fringe element of philosophy of science as a whole. A careful consideration of the treatment of the key concept of objectivity by such philosophical heavyweights as Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper, followed by an analysis of the concept of objectivity with the work of such feminist philosophers of science as Donna Haraway, Lynn Hankinson Nelson, and Sandra Harding, reveals that feminist philosophers of science are not members of some fringe movement of philosophy of science, but rather are doing philosophical work which is both crucial and connected to the work of other, "mainstream" philosophers of science. / Master of Arts

李艷紅. / 論文(哲學博士)--香港中文大學, 2004. / 參考文獻 (p. 320-328). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, MI : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / Abstracts in Chinese and English. / Li Yanhong. / Lun wen (Zhe xue bo shi)--Xianggang Zhong wen da xue, 2004. / Can kao wen xian (p. 320-328).

This study investigates Grocott’s Mail’s rape reporting through a participatory action research process. It draws on feminist cultural studies, sociology of news, and normative theories of the media to inform the research project. The participatory action research process explored three areas with the journalists at Grocott’s Mail: their understanding of the community they serve and their own professional identity as a community of practice, roles of the media in society which inform reporting, and rape as a social issue and problem. Through this process the study found that the pervasiveness of rape in the Grahamstown community, the complexities around rape reporting which include the significant legal challenges, the personal impact rape cases have on journalists, and the journalistic roles and approaches employed in rape reporting all influence how the paper covers rape. In analysing these matters the study found that the primary factor inhibiting a successful strategy for managing rape reporting was that Grocott’s Mail does not place gender-based violence on their news agenda as an issue requiring attention in order to develop the community they serve.

Available literature reveals that most prevalently delinquency has been viewed from a modernist perspective. However, as cybernetic epistemology increased its stronghold within the field of psychology, explanations became increasingly systemic in nature. In this study a literature review is presented which articulates these approaches. This critique is followed by a comprehensive consideration of delinquency from a social constructionist stance as an alternative to modernist and early cybernetic perspectives. Examples are provided as to possible ways in which the label "delinquency" evolves within an interpersonal context, as well as the ways in which the meaning engendered is linked to broader cultural discourses. It has been acknowledged that this does not constitute the social constructionist perspective on delinquency, but represents some challenging ideas about how delinquency is co-created between people. Implications for therapy and research are also discussed. / Psychology / M.A. (Clinical Psychology)

With the maturation of the child custody investigative process, the role of investigators and the process of these investigations have come under increasing scrutiny. The investigators are expected to be objective, neutral, and professional while following procedures that conform to model standards. However, this assumption of a lack of bias has been largely overlooked in the literature regarding the investigative process. It is assumed that investigators should self-monitor to ensure that their stance is objective and neutral. Furthermore, this position of neutrality and objectivity is assumed to be intuitive and natural. By using a case study, this thesis investigates and describes the process of a child custody investigation predicated on a constructivist epistemology. It highlights the impossibility of any investigator to be objective and neutral in any investigation automatically, regardless of the procedures and methods employed. The thesis highlights the participant observer status of investigators. An aim of the thesis is thus to sensitise investigators to this inevitable vulnerability with the expectation that such an awareness may allow investigators to establish processes to render investigations consciously more balanced, considered, and transparent. A further aim is to describe a child custody evaluation from an eco-systemic perspective by contextualising the investigation in the larger ecosystem to which it belongs. This description includes the investigation as part of an evolving problem-determined system. An awareness of this wider and evolving context may enable investigators to approximate a position of objectivity and neutrality more effectively. It may also act as an inoculation against the ‘contamination’ of the investigator by the investigative system. With the maturation of the child custody investigative process, the role of investigators and the process of these investigations have come under increasing scrutiny. The investigators are expected to be objective, neutral, and professional while following procedures that conform to model standards. However, this assumption of a lack of bias has been largely overlooked in the literature regarding the investigative process. It is assumed that investigators should self-monitor to ensure that their stance is objective and neutral. Furthermore, this position of neutrality and objectivity is assumed to be intuitive and natural. By using a case study, this thesis investigates and describes the process of a child custody investigation predicated on a constructivist epistemology. It highlights the impossibility of any investigator to be objective and neutral in any investigation automatically, regardless of the procedures and methods employed. The thesis highlights the participant observer status of investigators. An aim of the thesis is thus to sensitise investigators to this inevitable vulnerability with the expectation that such an awareness may allow investigators to establish processes to render investigations consciously more balanced, considered, and transparent. A further aim is to describe a child custody evaluation from an eco-systemic perspective by contextualising the investigation in the larger ecosystem to which it belongs. This description includes the investigation as part of an evolving problem-determined system. An awareness of this wider and evolving context may enable investigators to approximate a position of objectivity and neutrality more effectively. It may also act as an inoculation against the ‘contamination’ of the investigator by the investigative system. xviii In South Africa, we have yet to formulate a document that establishes a model standard of practice or specific, dedicated training in this area. This thesis identifies what could be included in both areas (in addition to the expected protocols and procedures) by describing the investigator’s position as an expert learner, rather than just an ‘expert’. In line with current literature, it highlights the benefits of thinking consciously and in a considered manner. Furthermore, it indicates the benefits of a team approach to investigations, which could be considered an area for further investigation. In South Africa, we have yet to formulate a document that establishes a model standard of practice or specific, dedicated training in this area. This thesis identifies what could be included in both areas (in addition to the expected protocols and procedures) by describing the investigator’s position as an expert learner, rather than just an ‘expert’. In line with current literature, it highlights the benefits of thinking consciously and in a considered manner. Furthermore, it indicates the benefits of a team approach to investigations, which could be considered an area for further investigation. / Psychology / D. LITT et. Phil. ( Psychology)

This study empirically compares the Classical Test Theory (CTT) and the Partial Credit Model (PCM) of Rasch focusing on the invariance of item parameters. The invariance concept which is the consequence of the principle of specific objectivity was tested in both CTT and PCM using the results of learners who wrote the National Senior Certificate (NSC) Mathematics examinations in 2010. The difficulty levels of the test items were estimated from the independent samples of learn- ers. The same sample of learners used in the calibration of the difficulty levels of the test items in the PCM model were also used in the calibration of the difficulty levels of the test items in CTT model. The estimates of the difficulty levels of the test items were done using RUMM2030 in the case of PCM while SAS was used in the case of CTT. RUMM2030 and SAS are both the statistical softwares. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the four different design groups of test takers. In cases where the ANOVA showed a significant difference between the means of the design groups, the Tukeys groupings was used to establish where the difference came from. The research findings were that the test items' difficulty parameter estimates based on the CTT theoretical framework were not invariant across the different independent sample groups. The over- all findings from this study were that the CTT theoretical framework was unable to produce item difficulty invariant parameter estimates. The PCM estimates were very stable in the sense that for most of the items, there was no significant difference between the means of at least three design groups and the one that deviated from the rest did not deviate that much. The item parameters of the group that was representative of the population (proportional allocation) and the one where the same number of learners (50 learners) was taken from different performance categories did not differ significantly for all the items except for item 6.6 in examination question paper 2. It is apparent that for the test item parameters to be invariant of the group of test takers in PCM, the group of test takers must be heterogeneous and each performance category needed to be big enough for the proper calibration of item parameters. The higher values of the estimated item parameters in CTT were consistently found in the sample that was dominated by the high proficient learners in Mathematics ("bad") and the lowest values were consistently calculated in the design group that was dominated by the less proficient learners. This phenomenon was not apparent in the Rasch model. / Mathematical Sciences / M.Sc. (Statistics)

Avhandlingen undersöker ett centralt steg inom vetenskapliga praktiker: hur laboratorieprov översätts till data som anses giltiga och användbara av forskargemenskapen. Baserat på ett multilokalt fältarbete bestående av observationer och intervjuer i laboratorier för genetisk forskning, visas i avhandlingen hur laboratoriepersonalens yrkesskicklighet, samt normer och ideal om vetenskaplig forskning, formade deras praktiker av att producera giltiga data. Eftersom maskiner var väsentliga i forskningen undersöker avhandlingen också de former av agens som människor och maskiner ansågs bidra med till produktionen av giltiga data; giltighet tolkades som reproducerbarhet av forskarna. Med hjälp av representationsbegreppet och Latours begrepp om inskriptioner och immutable mobiles analyserar avhandlingen arbetet med att förvandla laboratorieprov till giltiga data som en tvåstegsprocess. Proven omvandlades först till rådata som sedan tolkades till data. Personalens huvudsakliga ansträngningar fokuserade i det första steget på att uppnå säkra resultat genom att bekämpa osäkerhet i material och metoder. I det andra steget var det viktigaste att eliminera subjektivitet och att göra objektiva tolkningar av rådatan. Laboratoriepersonalens yrkesskicklighet och användning av maskiner var viktiga verktyg för att eliminiera osäkerhet och subjektivitet. Säkra och objektiva resultat, dvs giltiga data, förväntades uppnås med hjälp av maskiner. Med användning av bl a Barad’s begrepp agential realism analyserar avhandlingen de olika förståelser av människor och maskiner som formade forskarnas praktiker och möjliggjorde skapandet av giltiga data. / This dissertation explores a central step in scientific practices: how samples are turned into data that is considered valid and useful by the research community. Based on multi-sited fieldwork, with observations and interviews at laboratories involved in genetic research, the study focuses on how the laboratory staff’s professional skill, norms, and ideals of scientific research formed their practices of making valid data. As machines were essential for this research, the study also investigates the forms of agency that humans and machines were seen as contributing to the making of valid data; validity being interpreted as reproducibility by the scientists involved. Drawing upon notions of representations as well as Latour’s concepts of inscriptions and immutable mobiles, the study analyzes the practices of transforming samples into valid data as a two-step process. The samples were first turned into raw data, which was subsequently interpreted as data. During the first step, the staff’s central concern was to battle uncertainty in materials and procedures and establish certainty of results, whereas in the second step it was of vital importance to eliminate subjectivity and make objective interpretations of the raw data. Central tools for eliminating uncertainty and subjectivity were the laboratory staff’s professional skill and the use of machines. Certainty and objectivity of results, i.e. valid data, were expected to occur with the help of machines. Drawing upon e.g. Barad’s framework of agential realism, the study analyzes the various understandings of notions of humanness and machineness which shaped scientists’ practices and made the creation of valid data possible.

Ce mémoire porte sur l’articulation de la morale en droit. Il soulève la question de l’objectivité de la morale dans la théorie du droit de Ronald Dworkin. Celui-ci doit pouvoir établir les critères de justification de la morale pour asseoir son autorité en droit. Il conteste la validité de la règle de reconnaissance de Hart qui exclue la morale comme source et comme justification inhérente au droit. Dans son dernier livre, Justice for Hedgehogs (2011), Dworkin présente sa thèse de l’unité de valeur entre le droit, la morale personnelle et la morale politique. Pour réussir à intégrer la morale au droit, il doit en défendre l’objectivité. Il développe une conception de la rationalité pratique et de la vérité propre à la morale. Sa conception de la rationalité pratique est rapprochée de celle d’Alasdair MacIntyre. Celui-ci rejette la prétention issue des Lumières d’une rationalité pratique universelle et neutre. Il développe une conception de la rationalité pratique fondée sur le concept de tradition d’investigation. Il fait l’histoire des principales traditions d’investigation depuis l’antiquité jusqu’à aujourd’hui. Il considère la tradition aristotélicienne supérieure, celle-ci réussissant mieux à donner objectivité et intelligibilité à la morale. Des points de convergence ou de divergence sont identifiés dans les conceptions de la morale de Dworkin et de MacIntyre. Ce rapprochement porte sur leurs positions respectives face aux principaux fondements théoriques en philosophie morale, leurs conceptions de la rationalité pratique et leurs définitions des notions de droit et de justice. / The subject of this thesis is the relation between morals and law. It raises the question of the objectivity of morals in Ronald Dworkin’s theory of law. Dworkin has to set sound justification criteria of morals in order to establish its authority in law. He disputes the validity of the rule of recognition of Hart which negates that morality is an inherent part of law. In his last book, Justice for Hedgehogs (2011), Dworkin present his thesis on the unity of value between law, personal morality and political morality. To succeed in integrating morality into law, he has to defend its objectivity. He develops a particular concept of rationality and truth applicable to morality. His concept of practical rationality is drawn together with Alasdair Macintyre’s own concept of rationality MacIntyre rejects the Enlightment’s claim of a universal and neutral rationality. He develops a concept of practical reasoning based on the concept of traditions of enquiry. He makes the history of the most important traditions of enquiry from Ancient Greece to today. He considers that the Aristotelian tradition of enquiry is superior, since it gives objectivity and intelligibility to morality. Points of convergence and points of divergence are identified in the concepts of morality of Dworkin and MacIntyre. These common aspects are found in the theoretical fundamentals in philosophy, in their concepts of practical rationality and in their definition of the notions of law and justice.