Specificity of joint stock companies with state property interest Abstract This diploma thesis focuses on state-owned stock companies. This thesis aims to focus purely on stock companies with only short introductions to other forms of state ownership of corporations. The goal is to identify state as a legal entity and also as a shareholder. The other goals are an analysis of obligation to provide information and lastly a brief analysis of some other specifics when it comes to state-owned stock companies. The first part dealing with the identification of the state aims to sufficiently isolate stock companies from other possible state-owned corporations, while interpreting the relevant legal provisions combined with relevant court decisions. The second part focuses in detail on the obligation to provide information of state- owned stock companies. The goal is to analyze the relevant decisions of the Czech Constitutional Court in relation to the Act on freedom of information. Other chapters of this part focus on obligation to provide information in relation to Act on public procurement and to Act on the contract register . This second part heavily relies on judicial practice of both national and EU institutions. The third part deals with certain other specifics, which relate to state-owned stock companies....

This study analyzed moral psychology's “moral judgment-moral action gap” research and found that morality was being described as a secondary phenomenon produced by underlying substrates (such as identity and self constructs, “brain modules,” and “evolved emotional systems”) which are themselves non-moral. Deriving morality from “the non-moral” presents a kind of ontological gap in the moral psychology research. Researchers implicitly close this gap assuming it is possible to get moral judgments and actions out of non-moral substrates. But the difficulty remains how the moral as “moral” becomes infused into any moral psychology models. Morality is not a secondary phenomenon arising out of something else. This study argues that there is a need to shift our understanding of what it means to be human, to a view in which the moral is fundamental. An alternative foundation for assessing the moral is found in the work of Emmanuel Levinas who sees ethics as a metaphysical concern. This means that he sees the essential moral character of human life and the reality of human agency as ontologically fundamental, or constitutive of human nature itself. In other words, the ethical is the “first cause” in regards to understanding the nature and action of the self. Thus morality is not merely epiphenomenal to some more fundamental reality. Levinas holds that as humans, we are called to the Other. This call of obligation to the Other comes before all other human endeavors. After presenting Levinas's alternative foundation of obligation to the Other which herein is labeled Felt Moral Obligation (FMO), C. Terry Warner's conceptualizations of FMO in relation to the moral judgment-action gap are presented. In light of these conceptualizations, this study argues that there is actually no moral judgment-moral action gap, but only holistic events of moral self-betrayal. Warner illustrates that rejecting FMO is a single moral event, a holistic act performed by a moral agent that involves moral responses of self-justification, offense-taking, and rationalization. The person finds him or herself in a state of self-betrayal. Levinas and Warner implicitly assert that such self-betraying responses are not fundamentally biological or rational, but rather, fundamentally moral.

This research examines caregiver experiences as they relate to attachment style. The overarching hypothesis is that perceptions of the caregiver role differ depending on the degree of avoidance and anxiousness in the caregiver's attachment style. Caregiver response was measured in the areas of filial obligation, work reduction, perceived control, caregiver burden, depressive symptomatology, and preparedness for caregiving. The final sample consisted of 150 caregivers who identified as the primary caregiver for a parent over the age of 65. This sample was recruited using Mechanical Turk, an online survey distribution tool. The survey was created online with Qualtrics software. Data were analyzed using SPSS software, and procedures primarily focused on correlational and descriptive statistics. The results revealed several significant correlations between attachment style and caregiver burden as well as depression, supporting the hypothesis that attachment style is associated with differences in perception of the caregiver experience. This research is motivated by the increasingly urgent need for caregiver support through financial aid, counseling services, and cohesive healthcare options.

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Med en allt högre fokus på klimatpåverkan i samhället har marknaden för gröna obligationer under det senaste årtiondet blivit en attraktiv plattform för investerare att placera kapital i. Studier i ämnet visar även att finansmarknaden utgör en avgörande roll för att klimatmålen i Parisavtalet ska uppnås och gröna obligationer är ett viktigt verktyg. Marknaden för gröna obligationer är däremot fortfarande otydlig vad gäller definitioner och klassificeringar, vilket ökar komplexiteten i investeringsbeslut. Studien syftar därför till att kartlägga investerares beslutsprocess vid gröna investeringar och belysa vad som är avgörande för investeringsbeslut på en marknad under konstant utveckling.  Arbetet genomförs med en kvalitativ metod i form av litteraturstudie samt semi-strukturerade intervjuer med aktörer som är involverade i investeringsbeslut på den gröna obligationsmarknad. Resultatet visar att den gröna stämplingen på en obligation inte är avgörande för investerare utan att finansiella faktorer såsom avkastning väger tyngre. Såvida skiljer sig beslutsprocessen gällande gröna investeringar jämfört med konventionella främst genom att den har en ökad komplexitet och innehåller kvalitativa faktorer i större utsträckning. Investerare har fortsatt ett stort intresse för hållbar finansiering och är förberedda på de resurser som krävs i investeringsbeslut men utgår snarare från hållbarhetsarbete som helhet än specifikt gröna obligationer. / With an increasing focus on climate impact in society, the market for green bonds has over the past decade become an attractive platform for investors to redirect their funds towards. Studies in the subject also show that the financial market plays a crucial role in achieving the climate goals in the Paris Agreement and that green bonds are an important tool. The market for green bonds, on the other hand, is still unclear in terms of definitions and classifications, which increases the complexity of investment decisions. The study therefore aims to clarify investors' decision-making process for green investments and shed light on what is crucial for investment decisions in a market under constant development. The work is carried out with a qualitative method with a literature study and semi-structured interviews with actors involved in investment decisions on the green bond market. The results show that the green labelling on a bond is not decisive for investors, but that financial factors such as returns weigh more heavily. Therefore, the decision-making process regarding green investments differs from conventional ones, mainly as it has an increased complexity and contains qualitative factors to a greater extent. Investors continue to have a strong interest in sustainable financing and are prepared for the resources required in complex investment decisions but prefer sustainability work in a wider aspect rather than specifically green bonds.

This study examines the ethical challenges that Swedish social workers may facedue to the proposed “Informationsplikt” (Duty of Disclosure). Rooted in the Tidö-Agreement between government parties and the Swedish Democrats, thisobligation mandates public officials, including social workers, to verifyindividuals legal right to reside in the country and report undocumentedimmigrants to the police. Amid widespread criticism and demonstrations againstwhat is colloquially referred to as the “Angiverilagen” (The Informer Act),professionals have voiced concerns about the potential ethical implications ofenacting this proposed legislation. Through qualitative interviews with six socialworkers, this research investigates how this proposed law as a part of bureaucraticregulations intersects with personal values and professional ethics among socialworkers. The findings reveal a conflict between the reporting obligation andsocial workers personal and professional values. Respondents express acommitment to upholding their clients’ rights and dignity, while expressingapprehension that this mandatory reporting may compromise these principles.Discussions about potential strategies, such as seeking legal loopholes withinexisting legislation or contemplating civil disobedience or resignation, shed lighton the difficulties social workers may encounter in navigating these ethicalchallenges in the future. Overall, this study underscores the tension betweenfollowing laws and regulations and the core tenets of social work ethics,emphasizing the importance of social workers navigating these complexities withintegrity and ethical reflection.

Although the 2005 EPAct was enacted to help bolster the emerging biofuel industry, 52% of advanced biofuel projects were closed or shut down by 2015. However, there are no complete lists of barriers that impeded these projects. The goal of this study was to develop a framework of barriers impeding success of advanced biofuel projects by conducting a literature review of barriers, spatial analysis of status, survey of barriers, and determination of coproducts and byproducts and their marketing and distribution barriers from the industry stakeholders. The spatial analysis indicated 59 biofuel projects were attempted, and their Eastern and Western location by status was not a barrier. Using Grounded Theory, nine barriers were derived and aggregated in major categories, including product development, strategy, technology, competition, energy costs, funding, government, suppliers, and third-party relations. A contingency analysis was conducted relating their status to internal and external barriers, indicating no relationship between type of closing and type of barrier. Next, the number of barriers was expanded to 23, and a survey was conducted to gain knowledge on these barriers from industry stakeholders. When comparing the barriers by stakeholders, there were differences based on status, type, and technology of the projects. In addition, the survey and discussion identified 79 barriers different across years, type of industry (pilot, demonstration, or commercial), status (open, closed, or planning), and technology (thermochemical, biochemical, or hybrid). Forty-seven coproducts and byproducts and many unknown barriers to their marketability and distribution were determined and ranked by primary and secondary barriers. These extensive lists of barriers and coproducts will aid future biofuels projects in their planning, research, and development stages. / Master of Science

The purpose of this essay is to problematize the conflicts of interest in the supply of personnel within Sweden's growing total defense. By analyzing the government's policy for the total defense obligation and its ability to steer towards its policy goals based on its ability to manage the supply of personell according to prioritized needs. The study adopts a qualitative approach and the essay constitutes a case study of a broader policy formulation and central governance problem in a complex society with multiple implementing agencies. The study of the policy for the total defense obligation is theory-consuming, and the empirical material has been analyzed using a framework and a qualitative content analysis. It appears that the framework regarding a successful implementation is only partially met. This is because there is a conflict in the goals of the policy about what should be prioritized as most important. There are no clear guidelines on where one or several individuals should be drafted for war duties in a conflict of interest between the different categories of the total defense obligation, especially at an aggregated level. It is expected that the implementing actors can adopt a holistic perspective on where an individual should be placed for war duties to create the best conditions for the total defense. The holistic assessment assumes that the implementing actors have extensive access to information and knowledge about the country's war planning. Furthermore, it is evident that the actors responsible for the personell of supply can register all or parts of their personnel with the support of the general service obligation, which leads to a "first come, first served" principle where the number of individuals who are available for the total defense obligation that can be claimed with military or civil duty decreases. The policy for the total defense obligation does not take into account that the total defense will need to economize the personnel resources when the total defense is growing.

Malgré l'émergence du droit de l'environnement dans les années 70, les écosystèmes ont continué de se dégrader de façon croissante au cours des dernières décennies. L'omission des États de protéger adéquatement les écosystèmes pousse d'ailleurs les citoyens à entreprendre des recours judiciaires, par exemple en matière climatique, afin de les forcer à exercer leurs responsabilités. L'État est un acteur essentiel en matière de gouvernance climatique et son rôle doit donc évoluer pour faire face à l'ampleur du défi. Notamment, la large discrétion dont il dispose d'agir dans l'intérêt public doit être encadrée afin de l'exercer dans le respect des contraintes écologiques. La théorie de l'État fiduciaire, dont discutent des auteurs depuis les années 70, pourrait contribuer à encadrer sa discrétion et imposer de plus grandes responsabilités à l'État. Selon cette théorie, l'État dans ses fonctions exécutive et en partie législative, exercerait le rôle de fiduciaire de l'environnement. Détenant les pouvoirs de gestion, il devrait agir dans l'intérêt public des citoyens canadiens actuels (bénéficiaires de cette gestion), mais également dans celui des générations futures. La fiducie publique (ou public trust doctrine), un outil basé sur ces principes, est déjà appliquée aux États-Unis et dans certains autres pays du Commonwealth. Cependant, son application demeure très limitée, n'englobant, dans plusieurs États américains, que les ressources naturelles près des cours d'eau. De plus, cette doctrine n'impose que peu d'obligations positives aux gouvernements, qui ne doivent justifier leur action dans une logique fiduciaire que lorsque les citoyens la contestent devant les tribunaux. Néanmoins, plusieurs auteurs ont récemment suggéré d'appliquer cette logique fiduciaire plus largement pour redéfinir la gouvernance publique et la démocratie, forçant les États à considérer les intérêts écologiques dans l'ensemble de leurs actes. L'intérêt de la théorie de l'État fiduciaire réside dans l'imposition d'obligations positives de protection, d'une obligation de rendre compte de la gestion des écosystèmes et, finalement, dans son intégration de la notion de responsabilité dans la gestion de l'environnement. Le contenu et la portée des devoirs fiduciaires qui seraient imposés à l'État en vertu de cette théorie restent à préciser. Afin de combler cette lacune, cette recherche explore, dans un premier temps, les causes sous-jacentes à l'inefficacité du droit de l'environnement, dont notamment la croissance économique et le néolibéralisme. Ces éléments sont aussi ceux qui balisent la notion d'intérêt public - donc la discrétion de l'État - à l'heure actuelle. Les changements nécessaires du système économique envisagés par les économistes écologiques et le rôle de la propriété privée dans la surexploitation des ressources naturelles sont également abordés. Il décrit par la suite le modèle d'État fiduciaire le plus prometteur, après avoir tracé le portrait de son évolution dans les dernières décennies et sa comparaison avec la fiducie publique américaine. Dans un second temps, une étude des décisions de contrôle judiciaire environnemental rendues par la Cour suprême du Canada et les tribunaux d'appel des provinces des Prairies et du Québec permet d'établir les caractéristiques de l'application des obligations de raisonnabilité et d'équité en matière environnementale. Ces obligations peuvent être considérées comme l'équivalent en droit public de l'obligation fiduciaire de loyauté du droit privé. Cette recherche décrit par la suite les arguments juridiques qui permettraient d'invoquer les devoirs fiduciaires environnementaux devant les tribunaux, puis propose une définition de ces derniers à l'aide des enseignements de l'analyse jurisprudentielle, de la doctrine et de l'expérience néo-zélandaise du guardianship entourant la protection de l'ancien parc national Te Urewera et de la rivière Whanganui. Il fournit, finalement, un portrait des responsabilités supplémentaires qui incomberaient à l'État en matière de protection de l'environnement et des changements nécessaires à la mise en œuvre de devoirs fiduciaires, advenant l'imposition claire de ces devoirs par les cours de justice ou la législation. / Judicial Review of Environmental Matters and the Trusteeship Theory: Rethinking State's Obligations Towards the Environment. Despite the advent of environmental law in the '70s, ecosystems have increasingly degraded in the past decades. The failure of States to protect ecosystems adequately has led to several climate lawsuits launched by citizens all over the world, asking their government to take responsibility. The State is a fundamental actor of climate governance. The evolution of the role of the State is thus required to face the challenges brought by the environmental crisis. Its broad discretion to act in the public interest has to be exercised within ecological constraints. The trusteeship theory, discussed by authors also since the '70s, could contribute to guiding State's discretion and imposing greater responsibilities on governments. This theory suggests that the State would act as fiduciary of the environment - our common patrimony - in its executive and legislative functions. It would therefore exercise its managing powers in the best interest of current and future generations of Canadian citizens, beneficiaries of this "trust". The public trust doctrine, already applied in the United States and in other Commonwealth countries, is based on this principle. Its application is, however, limited, considering that in many American states, only natural resources close to public waterways are comprised in the trust. In addition, only a few positive duties are imposed on governments based on this doctrine, so that they do not have to justify their actions based on fiduciary principles until citizens challenge them in court. Redefining public governance and democracy with this fiduciary rationale, therefore forcing the State to consider ecological constraints in all of its decisions, has nevertheless been suggested by many authors over the last few years. The fiduciary theory's value resides in the imposition of positive obligations of protection, of a duty to account for ecosystem management, while also integrating a notion of responsibility in environmental protection. The content and scope of the fiduciary duties that would be imposed on the State remain to be defined. In order to fill this gap, this research project explores, in the first part, the underlying causes that explain environmental law's lack of effectiveness and that shape the notion of "public interest", including economic growth and neoliberalism. The necessary changes of the economic system suggested by ecological economists, as well as the role of private property in resources overexploitation are also addressed. After providing an overview of its evolution in the past decades, and a comparison with the American public trust doctrine, the most promising fiduciary model for environmental governance is explored. In the second part, environmental judicial review judgments rendered by the Supreme Court of Canada, as well as the Prairie Provinces' and Quebec's appellate courts, are studied to define the obligations of reasonableness and equity in environment. Indeed, those obligations are considered to be public law equivalents of private fiduciary duties. Legal arguments that could be used to invoke the application of public fiduciary duties in court are subsequently analyzed. A working definition of those fiduciary duties is then articulated based on the case law analysis, doctrinal developments, and Aotearoa New Zealand's experience with the guardianship that has been implemented to protect Te Urewera - a former national park - and the Whanganui River. In short, this project presents an overview of the additional duties of environmental protection that would be incumbent upon the State should a clear fiduciary obligation be recognized and imposed on the latter by courts or legislation.

L'obligation de sécurité informationnelle - c'est-à-dire la tâche qui incombe aux entreprises d'assurer l'intégrité, la confidentialité et la disponibilité de l'information découle, tant en droit québécois que dans une majorité de juridictions occidentales, d'une série de dispositions législatives imposant non pas l'adoption de comportements ou l'utilisation de technologies ou de procédés identifiables, mais bien l'implantation de mesures de sécurité «raisonnables », «adéquates », ou « suffisantes ». Or, dans un domaine aussi embryonnaire et complexe que celui de la sécurité informationnelle, domaine dans lequel les solutions disponibles sont multiples et où la jurisprudence est éparse, comment une entreprise peut-elle jauger avec justesse l'étendue de son obligation? Bref, comment établir ce que ferait une entreprise raisonnablement prudente et diligente dans un domaine où il n'existe actuellement aucune balise législative, jurisprudentielle ou même coutumière permettant de fixer avec justesse le niveau de diligence imposé par le législateur? L'absence de sécurité juridique offerte par une telle situation est patente et nécessite une reconfiguration du cadre opératoire de l'obligation de sécurité informationnelle afin d'en identifier les composantes et les objectifs. Cet exercice passera par la redéfinition de l'obligation de sécurité informationnelle comme obligation de réduire les risques qui guettent l'information à un niveau socialement acceptable. En effet, la sécurité pouvant être définie comme étant la gestion du risque, c'est donc le risque qui réside au cœur de cette obligation. Or, en analysant les risques qui guettent un système, soit en analysant les menaces qui visent à exploiter ses vulnérabilités, il est possible d'établir quelles contre-mesures s'avèrent utiles et les coûts associés à leur mise en œuvre. Par la suite, il devient envisageable, en recourant à la définition économique de la négligence et en prenant compte des probabilités de brèches de sécurité et des dommages escomptés, d'établir les sommes optimales à investir dans l'achat, l'entretien et la mise à jour de ces contre-mesures. Une telle analyse permet ainsi de quantifier avec un certain degré de précision l'étendue de l'obligation de sécurité informationnelle en offrant aux entreprises un outil s'inspirant de données matérielles auxquelles elles ont librement accès et s'intégrant aisément dans le contexte juridique contemporain. / In Quebec, as in most western jurisdictions, the duty to ensure information security, i.e. the obligation bestowed upon companies to protect the integrity, confidentiality and availability of information, stems from a series of legal dispositions which, rather than to impose a certain conduct, or the use of given technologies or processes, simply demand that "reasonable", "adequate", or "sufficient" security measures be applied. However, in a field an nascent and complex as information security, where available solutions are numerous, and where case law is sparse, how can a company reliably predict the full extend of its duty? In other words, how can one establish what a reasonably prudent and diligent company would do in a field where laws, case law, and even customs fail to dictate precisely what level of diligence is sought by the legislator? The lack of legal certainty offered in such a case is obvious, and requires us to reconfigure the framework associated with the duty to ensure information security in order to identify its components and objectives. Such an endeavour begins with redefining the duty to ensure information security as a duty to reduce information-related risk to a socially acceptable leve1. Since security stems from risk management, it can therefore be said that risk is at the core of said duty. By analysing risk, i.e. by identifying the threats that aim to exploit a system's vulnerabilities, it becomes possible to specify which counter measures could be useful and what costs they may entail. From that point, it's feasible, if using the economic definition of negligence (which is based on the probability of a security breach, and the damages incurred), to establish the optimal amount that should be invested in the purchasing, upkeep and replacement of these counter measures. This type of analysis will allow companies to quantify, with a certain degree of precision, the extend to which they need to ensure information security by giving them a set of tools based on easily accessible data. Furthermore, said tools appear to be fully compatible with the current legal landscape.