Os efeitos dos dados defeituosos sobre os resultados dos processos analíticos são notórios. Aprimorar a qualidade dos dados exige estabelecer alternativas a partir de vários métodos, técnicas e procedimentos disponíveis. O processo de Avaliação da Qualidade dos Dados - pAQD - provê relevantes insumos na definição da alternativa mais adequada por meio do mapeamento dos defeitos nos dados. Relevantes abordagens computacionais apoiam esse processo. Tais abordagens utilizam métodos quantitativos ou baseados em asserções que usualmente restringem o papel humano a interpretação dos seus resultados. Porém, o pAQD depende do conhecimento do contexto dos dados visto que é impossível confirmar ou refutar a presença de defeitos baseado exclusivamente nos dados. Logo, a supervisão humana é essencial para esse processo. Sistemas de visualização pertencem a uma classe de abordagens supervisionadas que podem tornar visíveis as estruturas dos defeitos nos dados. Apesar do considerável conhecimento sobre o projeto desses sistemas, pouco existe para o domínio da avaliação visual da qualidade dos dados. Isto posto, este trabalho apresenta duas contribuições. A primeira reporta uma taxonomia que descreve os defeitos relacionados aos critérios de qualidade da acuracidade, completude e consistência para dados estruturados e atemporais. Essa taxonomia seguiu uma metodologia que proporcionou a cobertura sistemática e a descrição aprimorada dos defeitos em relação ao estado-da-arte das taxonomias. A segunda contribuição reporta relacionamentos entre propriedades-defeitos que estabelecem que certas propriedades visuais-interativas são mais adequadas para a avaliação visual de certos defeitos em dadas resoluções de dados. Revelados por um estudo de caso múltiplo e exploratório, esses relacionamentos oferecem indicações que reduzem a subjetividade durante o projeto de sistemas de visualização de apoio a avaliação visual da qualidade dos dados. / The effects of poor data quality on the reliability of the outcomes of analytical processes are notorious. Improving data quality requires alternatives that combine procedures, methods, techniques and technologies. The Data Quality Assessment process - DQAp - provides relevant and practical inputs for choosing the most suitable alternative through a data defects mapping. Relevant computational approaches support this process. Such approaches apply quantitative or assertions-based methods that usually limit the human interpretation of their outcomes. However, the DQAp process strongly depends on data context knowledge since it is impossible to confirm or refute a defect based only on data. Hence, human supervision is essential throughout this process. Visualization systems belong to a class of supervised approaches that can make visible data defect structures. Despite their considerable design knowledge encodings, there is little support design to data quality visual assessment. Therefore, this work reports two contributions. The first reports a taxonomy that organizes a detailed description of defects on structured and timeless data related to the quality criteria of accuracy, completeness and consistency. This taxonomy followed a methodology which enabled a systematic coverage of data defects and an improved description of data defects in regard to state-of-art literature. The second contribution reports a set of property-defect relationships that establishes that certain visual and interactive properties are more suitable for visual assessment of certain data defects in a given data resolution. Revealed by an exploratory and multiple study case, these relationships provides implications that reduce the subjectivity in the visualization systems design for data quality visual assessment.

La fibrillation auriculaire (FA), l’arythmie cardiaque la plus courante est un facteur de risque majeur pour le développement de l’accident vasculaire cérébral ischémique (AVC). Les anticoagulants oraux directs (AOD) ont largement remplacé la warfarine en usage clinique pour la prévention des AVC dans la FA. Cette recherche a examiné deux défis méthodologiques importants qui peuvent survenir dans les études observationnelles sur l’efficacité et l’innocuité comparatives des AOD et de la warfarine. Premièrement : un biais d’information résultant d’une classification erronée de l’exposition au traitement à la warfarine suite aux ajustements de doses fréquentes qui ne sont pas adéquatement consignés dans les données de dispensations pharmacologiques. Deuxièmement : un biais de sélection, en raison de la censure informative, généré par des mécanismes de censure différentiels, chez les patients exposés aux AOD, ou à la warfarine. À l’aide des données administratives du Québec, j’ai mené trois études de cohortes rétrospectives qui ont portées sur toutes les personnes ayant initié un anticoagulant oral de 2010 à 2016. Ces études étaient restreintes aux résidents du Québec couverts par le régime public d'assurance médicaments (environ 40% de la population au Québec), c’est-à-dire : des personnes âgées de 65 ans et plus; des bénéficiaires de l’aide sociale; des personnes qui n’ont pas accès à une assurance-maladie privée; et les personnes à leur charge. Dans la première étude, nous avons émis l'hypothèse que les données sur les réclamations en pharmacie ne reflètent pas correctement la durée de la dispensation de la warfarine. Les écarts entre les renouvellements consécutifs étaient plus grands pour la warfarine que les AOD. Dans cette étude, on a trouvé que l'écart moyen pour les usagers de la warfarine était de 9.3 jours (avec un intervalle de confiance de 95% [IC]: 8.97-9.59), l'apixaban de 3.08 jours (IC de 95%: 2.96--3.20), et de 3.15 jours pour le rivaroxaban (IC de 95%: 3.03-3.27). Les écarts entre les renouvellements consécutifs présentaient une plus grande variabilité chez les personnes qui prenaient de la warfarine comparativement à celles qui prenaient des AOD. Cette variation peut refléter les changements de posologie de la warfarine lorsque la dose quotidienne est ajustée par le professionnel de la santé en fonction des résultats du rapport normalisé international (INR). L’ajustement de la dose peut prolonger (ou raccourcir) la période couverte par le nombre de comprimés délivrés. Dans la deuxième étude, nous avons émis l'hypothèse que la définition de la durée d'exposition basée sur la variable des « jours fournis », disponible dans la base de données, et le délai de grâce fixe, entraîneront une erreur de classification différentielle de l’exposition à la warfarine par rapport aux AOD. Dans cette étude, on a utilisé deux approches pour définir la durée des dispensations : la variable des « jours fournis » disponible dans la base de données ainsi qu’une approche axée sur les données pour la définition de la durée de dispensation qui tient compte des antécédents de distribution précédents. La deuxième étude a révélé qu'en utilisant la variable des « jours fournis », la durée moyenne (et l'écart type) des durées des dispensations pour le dabigatran, le rivaroxaban, et la warfarine étaient de 19 (15), 19 (14), et de 13 (12) jours, respectivement. En utilisant l’approche fondée sur des données, les durées étaient de 20 (16), 19 (15), et de 15 (16) jours, respectivement. Ainsi, l'approche fondée sur les données s’est rapprochée de la variable des « jours fournis » pour les thérapies à dose standard telles que le dabigatran et le rivaroxaban. Une approche axée sur les données pour la définition de la durée de dispensation, qui tient compte des antécédents de distribution précédents, permet de mieux saisir la variabilité de la durée de dispensation de la warfarine par rapport à la méthode basée sur la variable des « jours fournis ». Toutefois, cela n’a pas eu d’impact sur les estimations du rapport de risque sur la sécurité comparative des AOD par rapport à la warfarine. Dans la troisième étude, nous avons émis l'hypothèse que lors de l'évaluation de l’effet d’un traitement continu avec des anticoagulants oraux (l'analyse per-protocole), la censure élimine les patients les plus malades du groupe des AOD et des patients en meilleure santé du groupe de warfarine. Cela peut baisser l'estimation de l'efficacité et de l'innocuité comparative en faveur des AOD. L’étude a démontré que les mécanismes de censure chez les initiateurs d’AOD et de warfarine étaient différents. Ainsi, certaines covariables pronostiquement significatives, telles que l’insuffisance rénale chronique et l’insuffisance cardiaque congestive, étaient associées avec une augmentation de la probabilité de censure chez les initiateurs d’AOD, et une diminution de la probabilité de censure chez les initiateurs de warfarine. Pour corriger le biais de sélection introduit par la censure, nous avons appliqué la méthode de pondération par la probabilité inverse de censure. Deux stratégies de spécification du modèle pour l’estimation des poids de censure ont été explorées : le modèle non stratifié, et le modèle stratifié en fonction de l’exposition. L’étude a démontré que lorsque les poids de censure sont générés sans tenir compte des dynamiques de censure spécifiques, les estimés ponctuels sont biaisés de 15% en faveur des AOD par rapport à l'ajustement des estimés ponctuels avec des poids de censure stratifiée selon l’exposition (rapport de risque: 1.41; IC de 95%: 1.34, 1.48 et rapport de risque: 1.26; IC de 95%: 1.20, 1.33, respectivement). Dans l’ensemble, les résultats de cette thèse ont d’importantes implications méthodologiques pour les futures études pharmacoépidémiologiques. À la lumière de ceux-ci, les résultats des études observationnelles précédentes peuvent être revus et une certaine hétérogénéité peut être expliquée. Les résultats pourraient également être extrapolés à d’autres questions cliniques. / Atrial fibrillation (AF), the most common cardiac arrhythmia is a major risk factor for the development of ischemic stroke. Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) replaced warfarin in clinical use for stroke prevention in AF. This research investigated two important methodological challenges that may arise in observational studies on the comparative effectiveness and safety of DOACs and warfarin. First, an information bias resulting from misclassification of exposure to dose-varying warfarin therapy when using days supplied value recorded in pharmacy claims data. Second, a selection bias due to informative censoring with differential censoring mechanisms in the DOACs- and the warfarin exposure groups. Using the Québec administrative databases, I conducted three retrospective cohort studies that included patients initiating an oral anticoagulant between 2010 and 2016. The studies were restricted to Québec residents covered by the public drug insurance plan (about 40% of Québec’s population), including those aged 65 years and older, welfare recipients, those not covered by private medical insurance, and their dependents. In the first study, we hypothesized that pharmacy claims data inadequately captured the duration of the dispensation of warfarin. Gaps between subsequent dispensations (refill gaps) and their variation are larger for warfarin than for DOACs. In this study, we found that the average refill gap for the users of warfarin was 9.3 days (95% confidence interval [CI]:8.97-9.59), apixaban 3.08 days (95%CI: 2.96--3.20), dabigatran 3.70 days (95%CI: 3.56-3.84) and rivaroxaban 3.15 days (95%CI: 3.03-3.27). The variance of refill gaps was greater among warfarin users than among DOAC users. This variation may reflect the changes in warfarin posology when the daily dose is adjusted by a physician or a pharmacist based on previously observed international normalized ratio (INR) results. The dose adjustment may lead to a prolongation of the period covered by the number of dispensed pills. In the second study, we hypothesized that the definition of duration of dispensation based on the days supplied value and a fixed grace period will lead to differential misclassification of exposure to warfarin and DOACs. This may bias the estimate of comparative safety in favor of DOACs. In this study, we used two approaches to define the duration of dispensations: the recorded days supplied value, and the longitudinal coverage approximation (data-driven) that may account for individual variation in drug usage patterns. The second study found that using the days supplied, the mean (and standard deviation) dispensation durations for dabigatran, rivaroxaban, and warfarin were 19 (15), 19 (14), and 13 (12) days, respectively. Using the data-driven approach, the durations were 20 (16), 19 (15), and 15 (16) days, respectively. Thus, the data-driven approach closely approximated the recorded days supplied value for the standard dose therapies such as dabigatran and rivaroxaban. For warfarin, the data-driven approach captured more variability in the duration of dispensations compared to the days supplied value, which may better reflect the true drug-taking behavior of warfarin. However, this did not impact the hazard ratio estimates on the comparative safety of DOACs vs. warfarin. In the third study, we hypothesized that when assessing the effect of continuous treatment with oral anticoagulants (per-protocol effect), censoring removes sicker patients from the DOACs group and healthier patients from the warfarin group. This may bias the estimate of comparative effectiveness and safety in favor of DOACs. The study showed that the mechanisms of censoring in the DOAC and the warfarin exposure groups were different. Thus, prognostically meaningful covariates, such as chronic renal failure and congestive heart failure, had an opposite direction of association with the probability of censoring in the DOACs and warfarin groups. To correct the selection bias introduced by censoring, we applied the inverse probability of censoring weights. Two strategies for the specification of the model for the estimation of censoring weights were explored: exposure-unstratified and exposure-stratified. The study found that exposure-unstratified censoring weights did not account for the differential mechanism of censoring across the treatment group and failed to eliminate the selection bias. The hazard ratio associated with continuous treatment with warfarin versus DOACs adjusted with exposure unstratified censoring weights was 15% biased in favor of DOACs compared to the hazard ratio adjusted with exposure-stratified censoring weights (hazard ratio: 1.41; 95% CI: 1.34, 1.48 and hazard ratio: 1.26; 95%CI: 1.20, 1.33, respectively). Overall, the findings of this thesis have important methodological implications for future pharmacoepidemiologic studies. Moreover, the results of the previous observational studies can be reappraised, and some heterogeneity can be explained. The findings can be extrapolated to other clinical questions.

Theoretischer Hintergrund: Aktuelle Studien zeigen spezifische Zusammenhänge von peripartalen psychischen Störungen und kindlichen Entwicklungsauffälligkeiten. Fragestellung: Haben Kinder von Müttern mit einer peripartalen Angst- oder depressiven Störung ein erhöhtes Risiko für (visuo–)‌motorische, sprachliche und kognitive Entwicklungsauffälligkeiten? Methode: In der prospektiven MARI-Studie (N = 306) wurden peripartale psychische Störungen mit dem CIDI-V in jedem Schwangerschaftstrimester sowie 2, 4 und 16 Monate nach der Geburt erhoben. Die kindliche Entwicklung wurde mit dem Neuropsychologischen Entwicklungs-Screening im Alter von 4 (N = 263) und 16 Monaten (N = 241) erfasst. Ergebnisse: Maternale depressive Störungen vor der Schwangerschaft waren negativ mit der visuellen Entwicklung (4 Monate; OR = 3.3) und der Haltungs- und Bewegungssteuerung (16 Monate; OR = 4.4) des Kindes assoziiert. Diskussion: Entwicklungsauffälligkeiten könnten u. a. durch ein verändertes Interaktionsverhalten (z. B. weniger Blickkontakt/Ermutigung) betroffener Mütter begründet sein. / Theoretical background: Anxiety and depressive disorders are among the most prevalent perinatal disorders, and specific associations with child development have to be distinguished to derive early targeted interventions. Objective: Are children of mothers with peripartum anxiety or depressive disorder at increased risk for (visuo–)‌motor, language, and cognitive developmental abnormalities? Method: In this prospective-longitudinal MARI study, N = 306 women were examined three time during pregnancy and at 2, 4, and 16 months after delivery using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview for Women (CIDI-V) to assess their anxiety and depressive disorders. Child development was assessed at 4 (N = 263) and 16 months postpartum (N = 241) using a standardized development test (Neuropsychologisches Entwicklungs-Screening, NES). Results: Maternal depressive disorders prior to pregnancy were associated with infant visual development at 4 months (OR = 3.3) and motor development at 16 months (OR = 4.4) postpartum. The results remained stable after adjustment for preterm delivery and perceived maternal social support. Discussion and conclusion: Developmental adversities in infants of mothers with prior depressive disorders might be explained by altered mother-child interaction (e. g., less eye contact, less engagement). Early identification of expectant mothers with a history of depressive disorders is crucial for early targeted intervention. Further studies are needed to examine the mechanisms of transmission to derive innovative approaches for prevention.

The thesis examines the relationship of birthweight to risk factors and markers, such as proteinuria and glomerular filtration rate, for chronic disease in postnatal life. It made use of the Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle Study (AusDiab). The AusDiab study is a cross sectional study where baseline data on 11,247 participants were collected in 1999-2000. Participants were recruited from a stratified sample of Australians aged ≥ 25 years, residing in 42 randomly selected urban and non-urban areas (Census Collector Districts) of the six states of Australia and the Northern Territory. The AusDiab study collected an enormous amount of clinical and laboratory data. During the 2004-05 follow-up AusDiab survey, questions about birthweight were included. Participants were asked to state their birthweight, the likely accuracy of the stated birthweight and the source of their stated birthweight. Four hundred and twelve chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients were approached, and 339 agreed to participate in the study. The patients completed the same questionnaire. Medical records were reviewed to check the diagnoses, causes of kidney trouble and SCr levels. Two control subjects, matched for gender and age, were selected for each CKD patient from participants in the AusDiab study who reported their birthweight. Among 7,157 AusDiab participants who responded to the questionnaire, 4,502 reported their birthweights, with a mean (standard deviation) of 3.4 (0.7) kg. The benefit and disadvantages of these data are discussed in chapter three. The data were analysed for the relationship between birthweight and adult body size and composition, disorders of glucose regulation, blood pressure, lipid abnormalities, cardiovascular diseases and glomerular filtration rate. Low birthweight was associated with smaller body build and lower lean mass and total body water in both females and males. In addition low birthweight was associated with central obesity and higher body fat percentage in females, even after taking into account current physical activity and socioeconomic status. Fasting plasma glucose, post load glucose and glycosylated haemoglobin were strongly and inversely correlated with birthweight. In those with low birthweight (< 2.5 kg), the risks for having impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance, diabetes and all abnormalities combined were increased by 1.75, 2.22, 2.76 and 2.28 for females and by 1.40, 1.32, 1.98 and 1.49 for males compared to those with normal birthweight (≥ 2.5 kg), respectively. Low birthweight individuals were at higher risk for having high blood pressure ≥ 140/90 mmHg and ≥ 130/85 mmHg compared to those with normal birthweight. People with low birthweight showed a trend towards increased risk for high cholesterol (≥ 5.5 mmol/l) compared to those of normal birthweight. Females with low birthweight had increased risk for high low density lipoprotein cholesterol (≥ 3.5 mmol/l) and triglyceride levels (≥ 1.7 mmol/l) when compared to those with normal birthweight. Males with low birthweight exhibited increased risk for low levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol (<0.9 mmol/l) than those with normal birthweight. Females with low birthweight were at least 1.39, 1.40, 2.30 and 1.47 times more likely to have angina, coronary artery disease, stroke and overall cardiovascular diseases respectively, compared to those ≥ 2.5 kg. Similarly, males with low birthweight were 1.76, 1.48, 3.34 and 1.70 times more likely to have angina, coronary artery disease, stroke and overall cardiovascular diseases compared to those ≥ 2.5 kg, respectively. The estimated glomerular filtration rate was strongly and positively associated with birthweight, with a predicted increase of 2.6 ml/min (CI 2.1, 3.2) and 3.8 (3.0, 4.5) for each kg of birthweight for females and males, respectively. The odd ratio (95% confidence interval) for low glomerular filtration rate (<61.0 ml/min for female and < 87.4 male) in people of low birthweight compared with those of normal birthweight was 2.04 (1.45, 2.88) for female and 3.4 (2.11, 5.36) for male. One hundred and eighty-nineCKD patients reported their birthweight; 106 were male. Their age was 60.3(15) years. Their birthweight was 3.27 (0.62) kg, vs 3.46 (0.6) kg for their AusDiab controls, p<0.001 and the proportions with birthweight<2.5 kg were 12.17% and 4.44%, p<0.001. Among CKD patients, 22.8%, 21.7%, 18% and 37.6% were in CKD stages 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively. Birthweights by CKD stage and their AusDiab controls were as follows: 3.38 (0.52) vs 3.49 (0.52), p=0.251 for CKD2; 3.28 (0.54) vs 3.44 (0.54), p=0.121 for CKD3; 3.19 (0.72) vs 3.43 (0.56), p= 0.112 for CKD4 and 3.09 (0.65) vs 3.47 (0.67), p<0.001 for CKD5. The results demonstrate that in an affluent Western country with a good adult health profile, low birthweight people were predisposed to higher rates of glycaemic dysregulation, high blood pressure, dyslipidaemia, cardiovascular diseases and lower glomerular filtration rate in adult life. In all instances it would be prudent to adopt policies of intensified whole of life surveillance of lower birthweight people, anticipating this risk. The general public awareness of the effect of low birthweight on development of chronic diseases in later life is of vital importance. The general public, in addition to the awareness of people in medical practice of the role of low birthweight, will lead to a better management of this group of our population that is increasingly surviving into adulthood.

The thesis examines the relationship of birthweight to risk factors and markers, such as proteinuria and glomerular filtration rate, for chronic disease in postnatal life. It made use of the Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle Study (AusDiab). The AusDiab study is a cross sectional study where baseline data on 11,247 participants were collected in 1999-2000. Participants were recruited from a stratified sample of Australians aged ≥ 25 years, residing in 42 randomly selected urban and non-urban areas (Census Collector Districts) of the six states of Australia and the Northern Territory. The AusDiab study collected an enormous amount of clinical and laboratory data. During the 2004-05 follow-up AusDiab survey, questions about birthweight were included. Participants were asked to state their birthweight, the likely accuracy of the stated birthweight and the source of their stated birthweight. Four hundred and twelve chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients were approached, and 339 agreed to participate in the study. The patients completed the same questionnaire. Medical records were reviewed to check the diagnoses, causes of kidney trouble and SCr levels. Two control subjects, matched for gender and age, were selected for each CKD patient from participants in the AusDiab study who reported their birthweight. Among 7,157 AusDiab participants who responded to the questionnaire, 4,502 reported their birthweights, with a mean (standard deviation) of 3.4 (0.7) kg. The benefit and disadvantages of these data are discussed in chapter three. The data were analysed for the relationship between birthweight and adult body size and composition, disorders of glucose regulation, blood pressure, lipid abnormalities, cardiovascular diseases and glomerular filtration rate. Low birthweight was associated with smaller body build and lower lean mass and total body water in both females and males. In addition low birthweight was associated with central obesity and higher body fat percentage in females, even after taking into account current physical activity and socioeconomic status. Fasting plasma glucose, post load glucose and glycosylated haemoglobin were strongly and inversely correlated with birthweight. In those with low birthweight (< 2.5 kg), the risks for having impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance, diabetes and all abnormalities combined were increased by 1.75, 2.22, 2.76 and 2.28 for females and by 1.40, 1.32, 1.98 and 1.49 for males compared to those with normal birthweight (≥ 2.5 kg), respectively. Low birthweight individuals were at higher risk for having high blood pressure ≥ 140/90 mmHg and ≥ 130/85 mmHg compared to those with normal birthweight. People with low birthweight showed a trend towards increased risk for high cholesterol (≥ 5.5 mmol/l) compared to those of normal birthweight. Females with low birthweight had increased risk for high low density lipoprotein cholesterol (≥ 3.5 mmol/l) and triglyceride levels (≥ 1.7 mmol/l) when compared to those with normal birthweight. Males with low birthweight exhibited increased risk for low levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol (<0.9 mmol/l) than those with normal birthweight. Females with low birthweight were at least 1.39, 1.40, 2.30 and 1.47 times more likely to have angina, coronary artery disease, stroke and overall cardiovascular diseases respectively, compared to those ≥ 2.5 kg. Similarly, males with low birthweight were 1.76, 1.48, 3.34 and 1.70 times more likely to have angina, coronary artery disease, stroke and overall cardiovascular diseases compared to those ≥ 2.5 kg, respectively. The estimated glomerular filtration rate was strongly and positively associated with birthweight, with a predicted increase of 2.6 ml/min (CI 2.1, 3.2) and 3.8 (3.0, 4.5) for each kg of birthweight for females and males, respectively. The odd ratio (95% confidence interval) for low glomerular filtration rate (<61.0 ml/min for female and < 87.4 male) in people of low birthweight compared with those of normal birthweight was 2.04 (1.45, 2.88) for female and 3.4 (2.11, 5.36) for male. One hundred and eighty-nineCKD patients reported their birthweight; 106 were male. Their age was 60.3(15) years. Their birthweight was 3.27 (0.62) kg, vs 3.46 (0.6) kg for their AusDiab controls, p<0.001 and the proportions with birthweight<2.5 kg were 12.17% and 4.44%, p<0.001. Among CKD patients, 22.8%, 21.7%, 18% and 37.6% were in CKD stages 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively. Birthweights by CKD stage and their AusDiab controls were as follows: 3.38 (0.52) vs 3.49 (0.52), p=0.251 for CKD2; 3.28 (0.54) vs 3.44 (0.54), p=0.121 for CKD3; 3.19 (0.72) vs 3.43 (0.56), p= 0.112 for CKD4 and 3.09 (0.65) vs 3.47 (0.67), p<0.001 for CKD5. The results demonstrate that in an affluent Western country with a good adult health profile, low birthweight people were predisposed to higher rates of glycaemic dysregulation, high blood pressure, dyslipidaemia, cardiovascular diseases and lower glomerular filtration rate in adult life. In all instances it would be prudent to adopt policies of intensified whole of life surveillance of lower birthweight people, anticipating this risk. The general public awareness of the effect of low birthweight on development of chronic diseases in later life is of vital importance. The general public, in addition to the awareness of people in medical practice of the role of low birthweight, will lead to a better management of this group of our population that is increasingly surviving into adulthood.

The thesis examines the relationship of birthweight to risk factors and markers, such as proteinuria and glomerular filtration rate, for chronic disease in postnatal life. It made use of the Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle Study (AusDiab). The AusDiab study is a cross sectional study where baseline data on 11,247 participants were collected in 1999-2000. Participants were recruited from a stratified sample of Australians aged ≥ 25 years, residing in 42 randomly selected urban and non-urban areas (Census Collector Districts) of the six states of Australia and the Northern Territory. The AusDiab study collected an enormous amount of clinical and laboratory data. During the 2004-05 follow-up AusDiab survey, questions about birthweight were included. Participants were asked to state their birthweight, the likely accuracy of the stated birthweight and the source of their stated birthweight. Four hundred and twelve chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients were approached, and 339 agreed to participate in the study. The patients completed the same questionnaire. Medical records were reviewed to check the diagnoses, causes of kidney trouble and SCr levels. Two control subjects, matched for gender and age, were selected for each CKD patient from participants in the AusDiab study who reported their birthweight. Among 7,157 AusDiab participants who responded to the questionnaire, 4,502 reported their birthweights, with a mean (standard deviation) of 3.4 (0.7) kg. The benefit and disadvantages of these data are discussed in chapter three. The data were analysed for the relationship between birthweight and adult body size and composition, disorders of glucose regulation, blood pressure, lipid abnormalities, cardiovascular diseases and glomerular filtration rate. Low birthweight was associated with smaller body build and lower lean mass and total body water in both females and males. In addition low birthweight was associated with central obesity and higher body fat percentage in females, even after taking into account current physical activity and socioeconomic status. Fasting plasma glucose, post load glucose and glycosylated haemoglobin were strongly and inversely correlated with birthweight. In those with low birthweight (< 2.5 kg), the risks for having impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance, diabetes and all abnormalities combined were increased by 1.75, 2.22, 2.76 and 2.28 for females and by 1.40, 1.32, 1.98 and 1.49 for males compared to those with normal birthweight (≥ 2.5 kg), respectively. Low birthweight individuals were at higher risk for having high blood pressure ≥ 140/90 mmHg and ≥ 130/85 mmHg compared to those with normal birthweight. People with low birthweight showed a trend towards increased risk for high cholesterol (≥ 5.5 mmol/l) compared to those of normal birthweight. Females with low birthweight had increased risk for high low density lipoprotein cholesterol (≥ 3.5 mmol/l) and triglyceride levels (≥ 1.7 mmol/l) when compared to those with normal birthweight. Males with low birthweight exhibited increased risk for low levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol (<0.9 mmol/l) than those with normal birthweight. Females with low birthweight were at least 1.39, 1.40, 2.30 and 1.47 times more likely to have angina, coronary artery disease, stroke and overall cardiovascular diseases respectively, compared to those ≥ 2.5 kg. Similarly, males with low birthweight were 1.76, 1.48, 3.34 and 1.70 times more likely to have angina, coronary artery disease, stroke and overall cardiovascular diseases compared to those ≥ 2.5 kg, respectively. The estimated glomerular filtration rate was strongly and positively associated with birthweight, with a predicted increase of 2.6 ml/min (CI 2.1, 3.2) and 3.8 (3.0, 4.5) for each kg of birthweight for females and males, respectively. The odd ratio (95% confidence interval) for low glomerular filtration rate (<61.0 ml/min for female and < 87.4 male) in people of low birthweight compared with those of normal birthweight was 2.04 (1.45, 2.88) for female and 3.4 (2.11, 5.36) for male. One hundred and eighty-nineCKD patients reported their birthweight; 106 were male. Their age was 60.3(15) years. Their birthweight was 3.27 (0.62) kg, vs 3.46 (0.6) kg for their AusDiab controls, p<0.001 and the proportions with birthweight<2.5 kg were 12.17% and 4.44%, p<0.001. Among CKD patients, 22.8%, 21.7%, 18% and 37.6% were in CKD stages 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively. Birthweights by CKD stage and their AusDiab controls were as follows: 3.38 (0.52) vs 3.49 (0.52), p=0.251 for CKD2; 3.28 (0.54) vs 3.44 (0.54), p=0.121 for CKD3; 3.19 (0.72) vs 3.43 (0.56), p= 0.112 for CKD4 and 3.09 (0.65) vs 3.47 (0.67), p<0.001 for CKD5. The results demonstrate that in an affluent Western country with a good adult health profile, low birthweight people were predisposed to higher rates of glycaemic dysregulation, high blood pressure, dyslipidaemia, cardiovascular diseases and lower glomerular filtration rate in adult life. In all instances it would be prudent to adopt policies of intensified whole of life surveillance of lower birthweight people, anticipating this risk. The general public awareness of the effect of low birthweight on development of chronic diseases in later life is of vital importance. The general public, in addition to the awareness of people in medical practice of the role of low birthweight, will lead to a better management of this group of our population that is increasingly surviving into adulthood.