O tecido ósseo é um tipo especializado de tecido conjuntivo que desempenha funções essenciais para a sobrevivência do indivíduo, sendo composto predominantemente por osteócitos. Dentre os tecidos mineralizados do corpo, o cemento é um dos menos estudados e compreendidos. A apoptose em células do tecido ósseo têm sido relatada após o uso de Tiazolidinedionas (TZD), uma classe de medicamentos utilizada no tratamento do diabetes melitus tipo 2, representadas pela Rosiglitazona. Assim, os objetivos desse estudo foram: avaliar, in vivo, um protocolo de administração sistêmica da Rosiglitazona em camundongos a fim de estimular a apoptose de osteócitos em maxilares; o efeito da apoptose de osteócitos induzida por Rosiglitazona na formação e progressão de lesões periapicais em camundongos nos períodos experimentais de 7, 21 e 42 dias; e demonstrar a ocorrência de apoptose em cementócitos de camundongos os quais receberam ou não a Rosiglitazona. Foram utilizados camundongos wild type (C57BL/6) com 4 a 5 semanas de idade. No primeiro estudo, a etapa 1 foi realizada para definição de protocolo de administração sistêmica da Rosiglitazona para indução de apoptose em maxilares de camundongos. Os animais (n=24) receberam a Rosiglitazona via oral por 1, 2 ou 3 semanas (gavagem, dose de 10mg/kg) ou não (PBS+10%DMSO). Foram utilizadas as técnicas de TUNEL e DAPI para quantificação de células apoptóticas. Posteriormente, na etapa 2, lesões periapicais foram induzidas nos primeiros molares inferiores de camundongos wild type (C57BL/6) (n=60) após a administração ou não da Rosiglitasona. A câmara pulpar dos dentes foi exposta à microbiota da cavidade bucal pelos períodos de 7, 21 e 42 dias e os grupos foram divididos da seguinte forma: G1) veículo + lesão 7 dias; G2) veículo + lesão 21 dias; G3) veículo + lesão 42 dias; G4) TZD + lesão 7 dias; G5) TZD + lesão 21 dias; G6) TZD + lesão 42 dias. Foram realizadas avaliações em microscopia convencional para análise descritiva das lesões periapicais; microscopia de fluorescência para mensuração das lesões periapicais; histoenzimologia para a atividade da fosfatase ácida resistente ao tartarato (TRAP) e marcação de osteoclastos; absortometria radiológica de dupla energia (DXA) para avaliação da densidade mineral óssea (DMO) em osso longo e análise da expressão gênica de marcadores de osteócitos (Sost, Hyou1 e Dmp1). No segundo estudo, foram utilizadas as técnicas de TUNEL e DAPI para quantificação de cementócitos apoptóticos em dentes de camundongos wild type (n=12) que receberam ou não a Rosiglitazona. Na etapa 1 do primeiro estudo, pôde-se observar que a administração sistêmica da Rosiglitazona por 2 semanas promoveu a apoptose de osteócitos de forma mais expressiva quando comparada ao período de 1 semana, porém sem diferença significativa com o período de 3 semanas (p>0,05). Já na etapa 2, nos grupos os quais receberam a Rosiglitazona, pôde-se observar uma tendência a lesões periapicais maiores, porém sem diferença estatisticamente significante em comparação com animais que não receberam esse medicamento (p>0,05), além de promover, aos 21 dias de progressão da lesão periapical, maior número de osteoclastos e maior expressão dos genes Sost e Hyou1, sem diferença estatisticamente significante para a expressão do gene Dmp1, bem como na DMO dos fêmures. Adicionalmente, no segundo estudo, foi observado que, em camundongos que receberam a Rosiglitazona por 2 semanas, os cortes histológicos corados em TUNEL e DAPI demonstraram maior razão de cementócitos apoptóticos/cementócitos totais comparado ao grupo controle. Após as metodologias empregadas e os parâmetros analisados, pôde-se concluir que o uso sistêmico da Rosiglitazona estimulou a apoptose de osteócitos e cementócitos interferindo na formação e progressão de lesões periapicais em camundongos. / The bone tissue is a specialized type of connective tissue that provides essential functions for the survival of the individual, composed predominantly of osteocytes. Among the mineralized tissues in the body, the cementum is one of the most poorly studied and understood. Apoptosis in the bone tissue have been reported after the use of Thiazolidinediones (TZD), a class of drugs used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2, represented by Rosiglitazone. Thus, the aims of this study were: evaluate, in vivo, a protocol for systemic administration of Rosiglitazone in mice in order to stimulate the apoptosis of osteocytes in jaws; the effect of apoptosis of osteocytes induced by Rosiglitazone in the formation and progression of periapical lesions in mice in the experimental periods of 7, 21 and 42 days; and demonstrate the occurrence of apoptosis in cementocytes of mice which received or not the Rosiglitazone. We used mice wild type (C57BL/6) with 4 to 5 weeks of age. In the first study, the phase 1 was performed for the protocol definition of systemic administration of Rosiglitazone for induction of apoptosis in mice jaws. The animals (n=24) received the Rosiglitazone orally for 1, 2 or 3 weeks (gavage, dose of 10mg/kg) or not (PBS+10%DMSO). We used the techniques of TUNEL and DAPI for quantification of apoptotic cells. Subsequently, in phase 2, periapical lesions were induced in the first lower molars of wild type (C57BL/6) mice (n=60) after the administration or not of Rosiglitasone. The pulp chamber was exposed to the oral microbiota during 7, 21 and 42 days, and the groups were divided as follows: G1) vehicle + periapical lesions 7 days; G2) vehicle + periapical lesions 21 days; (G3) vehicle + periapical lesions 42 days; (G4) TZD + periapical lesions 7 days; G5) TZD + periapical lesions 21 days; (G6) TZD + periapical lesions 42 days. Evaluations were conducted in conventional microscopy for descriptive analysis of periapical lesions; fluorescence microscopy for measurement of periapical lesions; histoenzimology to the activity of acid phosphatase resistant tartrate (TRAP) for osteoclasts measurement; dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) for evaluation of bone mineral density (BMD) in long bone and analysis of gene expression of osteocytes markers (Sost, Hyou1 and Dmp1). In the second study, TUNEL and DAPI techniques were used for the quantification of apoptotic cementocytes in wild type (n = 12) mice that received Rosiglitazone or not. In the phase 1 of the first study it was observed that the systemic administration of Rosiglitazone for 2 weeks showed the apoptosis of osteocytes in a more expressive manner when compared to the period of 1 week with no significant difference with the period of 3 weeks (p>0,05). On phase 2, in the groups which received the Rosiglitazone, it was observed a tendency of larger periapical lesions, but without statistically significant difference compared with animals that did not receive this drug (p>0,05), besides promoting, at 21 days of periapical lesion progression, greater number of osteoclasts and greater expression of genes Sost and Hyou1, and absence of statistically significant differences in the expression of the gene Dmp1 nor in the BMD of the femurs. In addition, in the second study, it was observed that, in mice that received the Rosiglitazone for 2 weeks, sections stained by TUNEL and DAPI showed significantly higher ratio of apoptotic cementocytes/total cementocytes compared to control group. After the methodologies used and the parameters analyzed, it can be concluded that the systemic use of Rosiglitazone stimulated the apoptosis of osteocytes and cementocytes interfering in the formation and progression of periapical lesions in mice.

Das Ziel der Studien, die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit vorgestellt werden, war es neue Informationen über die elementare Zusammensetzung des mineralisierten Knochens zu gewinnen. In einer ersten Studie wurden zwei Parameter verglichen, die beide eng mit der Knochenmineralisierung verknüpft sind. So zeigte die Gegenüberstellung des mineral/matrix Raman-Wertes und der Kalziumkonzentration gute Übereinstimmung mit theoretischen Überlegungen. Diese Methoden wurden auch verwendet um Knochengewebe von Mäusen zu charakterisieren bei denen ein genetischer Defekt zu einem Mangel von Sclerostin führte. So war es möglich nachzuweisen, dass eine hierdurch verstärkte Knochenneubildung zu einer veränderten Mineralisationskinetik des Knochens führen kann. Nachdem zukünftig Sclerostinantikörper für die Behandlung von Knochenkrankheiten eingesetzt werden sollen, haben diese Erkenntnisse große medizinische Bedeutung. Es wurde auch die Mineraldichteverteilung eines Mausmodells mit fragilem Knochen (Osteogenesis Imperfecta, OI) untersucht. Die Mäuse wurden mit Sclerostinantikörpern behandelt. Es zeige sich ein signifikanter Knochenzuwachs doch die Mineraldichteverteilung veränderte sich gleichermaßen für gesunde und für OI Mäuse. In einer Studie am humanen Knochen konnten der Zusammenhang zwischen Osteozytennetzwerk und Knochenzusammensetzung untersucht werden. Elemente wie Na, Mg und S wiesen typische Konzentrationsverteilungen auf. Die Routinen wurden auch verwendet um Mineralisationsfronten zu charakterisieren. Es zeigte sich, dass die Konzentrationen von K, Mg, Na und Cl abhängig von dem analysierten anatomischen Ort, stark voneinander abweichen. Abschließend kann gesagt werden, dass durch die Entwicklung neuer Routinen zusätzliche Erkenntnisse über die Knochenmineralisierung und Zusammensetzung gewonnen werden konnten. Die Resultate sind von medizinischer und biologischer Bedeutung und tragen zu aktuellen Debatten über die Knochenentwicklung bei. / The purpose of the presented work was to gain new insight into the elemental composition of mineralized bone matrix at different sites of human bone tissue, and in mouse models linked to human genetic diseases. Using novel tools and routines, human (femur cross sections from healthy adults and children) and murine samples (femur long-and cross sections of two mouse models) were analyzed with focus on the elemental composition. In a methodological study the consistency of matrix mineralization measured by Raman microspectroscopy (e.g. the mineral/matrix ratio) and the Calcium content (wt%Ca) as measured by qBEI was proved. Both methods were applied to a mouse model exhibiting induced bone overgrowth due to a genetic defect causing a lack of Sclerostin, which is a negative regulator for bone formation. We found changes in the mineralization kinetics depending on the anatomical site. This result is of clinical importance since Sclerostin antibodies are suggested for future treatment of diseases characterized by fragile bone. Hence, also a mouse model of a brittle bone disease (Osteogenesis Imperfecta) was analyzed with and without Sclerostin antibody treatment. A significant increase in bone mass was documented while the mineralization pattern revealed no interaction between genotype and treatment. The correlation between OLCN and the composition of the mineralized matrix was examined in the same regions of human compact bone. Characteristic distributions of the minor elements (Mg, Na, S) were found. The developed tools were also used to investigate mineralization fronts, reflecting a critical stage of bone development. Differences in the Ca/P ratio and in the concentrations of K, Mg, Na and Cl depending on the anatomical site were revealed. In conclusion, using newly developed measurement routines, it was possible to gain novel information of bone mineralization and composition. The results contribute to actively debated issues of biological and medical importance.

O tecido ósseo é um tipo especializado de tecido conjuntivo que desempenha funções essenciais para a sobrevivência do indivíduo, sendo composto predominantemente por osteócitos. Dentre os tecidos mineralizados do corpo, o cemento é um dos menos estudados e compreendidos. A apoptose em células do tecido ósseo têm sido relatada após o uso de Tiazolidinedionas (TZD), uma classe de medicamentos utilizada no tratamento do diabetes melitus tipo 2, representadas pela Rosiglitazona. Assim, os objetivos desse estudo foram: avaliar, in vivo, um protocolo de administração sistêmica da Rosiglitazona em camundongos a fim de estimular a apoptose de osteócitos em maxilares; o efeito da apoptose de osteócitos induzida por Rosiglitazona na formação e progressão de lesões periapicais em camundongos nos períodos experimentais de 7, 21 e 42 dias; e demonstrar a ocorrência de apoptose em cementócitos de camundongos os quais receberam ou não a Rosiglitazona. Foram utilizados camundongos wild type (C57BL/6) com 4 a 5 semanas de idade. No primeiro estudo, a etapa 1 foi realizada para definição de protocolo de administração sistêmica da Rosiglitazona para indução de apoptose em maxilares de camundongos. Os animais (n=24) receberam a Rosiglitazona via oral por 1, 2 ou 3 semanas (gavagem, dose de 10mg/kg) ou não (PBS+10%DMSO). Foram utilizadas as técnicas de TUNEL e DAPI para quantificação de células apoptóticas. Posteriormente, na etapa 2, lesões periapicais foram induzidas nos primeiros molares inferiores de camundongos wild type (C57BL/6) (n=60) após a administração ou não da Rosiglitasona. A câmara pulpar dos dentes foi exposta à microbiota da cavidade bucal pelos períodos de 7, 21 e 42 dias e os grupos foram divididos da seguinte forma: G1) veículo + lesão 7 dias; G2) veículo + lesão 21 dias; G3) veículo + lesão 42 dias; G4) TZD + lesão 7 dias; G5) TZD + lesão 21 dias; G6) TZD + lesão 42 dias. Foram realizadas avaliações em microscopia convencional para análise descritiva das lesões periapicais; microscopia de fluorescência para mensuração das lesões periapicais; histoenzimologia para a atividade da fosfatase ácida resistente ao tartarato (TRAP) e marcação de osteoclastos; absortometria radiológica de dupla energia (DXA) para avaliação da densidade mineral óssea (DMO) em osso longo e análise da expressão gênica de marcadores de osteócitos (Sost, Hyou1 e Dmp1). No segundo estudo, foram utilizadas as técnicas de TUNEL e DAPI para quantificação de cementócitos apoptóticos em dentes de camundongos wild type (n=12) que receberam ou não a Rosiglitazona. Na etapa 1 do primeiro estudo, pôde-se observar que a administração sistêmica da Rosiglitazona por 2 semanas promoveu a apoptose de osteócitos de forma mais expressiva quando comparada ao período de 1 semana, porém sem diferença significativa com o período de 3 semanas (p>0,05). Já na etapa 2, nos grupos os quais receberam a Rosiglitazona, pôde-se observar uma tendência a lesões periapicais maiores, porém sem diferença estatisticamente significante em comparação com animais que não receberam esse medicamento (p>0,05), além de promover, aos 21 dias de progressão da lesão periapical, maior número de osteoclastos e maior expressão dos genes Sost e Hyou1, sem diferença estatisticamente significante para a expressão do gene Dmp1, bem como na DMO dos fêmures. Adicionalmente, no segundo estudo, foi observado que, em camundongos que receberam a Rosiglitazona por 2 semanas, os cortes histológicos corados em TUNEL e DAPI demonstraram maior razão de cementócitos apoptóticos/cementócitos totais comparado ao grupo controle. Após as metodologias empregadas e os parâmetros analisados, pôde-se concluir que o uso sistêmico da Rosiglitazona estimulou a apoptose de osteócitos e cementócitos interferindo na formação e progressão de lesões periapicais em camundongos. / The bone tissue is a specialized type of connective tissue that provides essential functions for the survival of the individual, composed predominantly of osteocytes. Among the mineralized tissues in the body, the cementum is one of the most poorly studied and understood. Apoptosis in the bone tissue have been reported after the use of Thiazolidinediones (TZD), a class of drugs used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2, represented by Rosiglitazone. Thus, the aims of this study were: evaluate, in vivo, a protocol for systemic administration of Rosiglitazone in mice in order to stimulate the apoptosis of osteocytes in jaws; the effect of apoptosis of osteocytes induced by Rosiglitazone in the formation and progression of periapical lesions in mice in the experimental periods of 7, 21 and 42 days; and demonstrate the occurrence of apoptosis in cementocytes of mice which received or not the Rosiglitazone. We used mice wild type (C57BL/6) with 4 to 5 weeks of age. In the first study, the phase 1 was performed for the protocol definition of systemic administration of Rosiglitazone for induction of apoptosis in mice jaws. The animals (n=24) received the Rosiglitazone orally for 1, 2 or 3 weeks (gavage, dose of 10mg/kg) or not (PBS+10%DMSO). We used the techniques of TUNEL and DAPI for quantification of apoptotic cells. Subsequently, in phase 2, periapical lesions were induced in the first lower molars of wild type (C57BL/6) mice (n=60) after the administration or not of Rosiglitasone. The pulp chamber was exposed to the oral microbiota during 7, 21 and 42 days, and the groups were divided as follows: G1) vehicle + periapical lesions 7 days; G2) vehicle + periapical lesions 21 days; (G3) vehicle + periapical lesions 42 days; (G4) TZD + periapical lesions 7 days; G5) TZD + periapical lesions 21 days; (G6) TZD + periapical lesions 42 days. Evaluations were conducted in conventional microscopy for descriptive analysis of periapical lesions; fluorescence microscopy for measurement of periapical lesions; histoenzimology to the activity of acid phosphatase resistant tartrate (TRAP) for osteoclasts measurement; dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) for evaluation of bone mineral density (BMD) in long bone and analysis of gene expression of osteocytes markers (Sost, Hyou1 and Dmp1). In the second study, TUNEL and DAPI techniques were used for the quantification of apoptotic cementocytes in wild type (n = 12) mice that received Rosiglitazone or not. In the phase 1 of the first study it was observed that the systemic administration of Rosiglitazone for 2 weeks showed the apoptosis of osteocytes in a more expressive manner when compared to the period of 1 week with no significant difference with the period of 3 weeks (p>0,05). On phase 2, in the groups which received the Rosiglitazone, it was observed a tendency of larger periapical lesions, but without statistically significant difference compared with animals that did not receive this drug (p>0,05), besides promoting, at 21 days of periapical lesion progression, greater number of osteoclasts and greater expression of genes Sost and Hyou1, and absence of statistically significant differences in the expression of the gene Dmp1 nor in the BMD of the femurs. In addition, in the second study, it was observed that, in mice that received the Rosiglitazone for 2 weeks, sections stained by TUNEL and DAPI showed significantly higher ratio of apoptotic cementocytes/total cementocytes compared to control group. After the methodologies used and the parameters analyzed, it can be concluded that the systemic use of Rosiglitazone stimulated the apoptosis of osteocytes and cementocytes interfering in the formation and progression of periapical lesions in mice.

L'interleukine-17A (IL-17A) et le facteur de nécrose tumorale alpha (TNF-α) sont des cytokines pro-inflammatoires impliquées dans la pathogénèse de plusieurs maladies articulaires. Au cours de la polyarthrite rhumatoïde (PR), une augmentation de la destruction osseuse ainsi qu'un defaut de réparation sont responsables des dommages articulaires. Cependant au cours de la spondylarthrite ankylosante (AS), une importante ossification ectopique est observée, conduisant à la formation de syndesmophytes, associé à une perte de la masse osseuse systémique. Récemment, l'étude de ces cytokines a conduit à la publication de résultats contradictoires. Notre objectif a donc été d'étudier l'effet de ces deux cytokines sur la différenciation ostéogénique de cellules souches mésenchymateuses humaines isolées (hMSCs) et de fibroblastes de la membrane synoviale (FLS). Tous les modèles de cellules utilisés, ont démontré que l'IL-17A et le TNF-α augmentent de manière synergique l'ostéogénèse. Ceci semble se rapprocher du modèle de l'AS où une formation d'os ectopique est observée dans laquelle l'IL-17A et le TNF-α jouent un rôle majeur. En parallèle, ces deux cytokines stimulent localement les ostéoclastes, entraînant une perte de masse osseuse observée à la fois dans la PR et dans l'ostéoporose. Cibler simultanément l'IL-17A et le TNF-α pourrait conduire à une diminution de l'infiltration de cellules et de la destruction articulaire observée dans la PR et pourrait ainsi réduire les effets des FLS PR sur l'activation de l'ostéoclastogénèse / Interleukin-17A (IL-17A) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) are pro-inflammatory cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of several arthritic diseases. In rheumatoid arthritis (RA), joint damage is a result of an increase in bone destruction and a decrease in bone repair. In contrast, in ankylosing spondylitis (AS), a bone mass loss accompanied by a significant ectopic ossification is observed leading to the formation of syndesmophytes. Recent studies led to contradictory findings regarding the role of IL-17A and TNF-α in arthritic disease. Therefore, our objective was to study the effect of these two cytokines on the osteogenic differentiation of isolated human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) and fibroblasts of the synovial membrane (FLS). In all the cell models used, we demonstrated that Il-17A and TNF α synergistically increase osteogenesis. This seems to approach the model of AS where ectopic bone formation is observed and in which IL-17A and TNF-α both are involved. These cytokines stimulate osteoclasts locally resulting in loss of bone mass observed in both RA and osteoporosis. Thus, targeting IL-17A and TNF-α could lead to a decrease in cell infiltration and joint destruction which is observed in RA and may reduce the effects of RA FLS on the activation of osteoclastogenesis

Astronauts at are risk of losing 1.0-1.5% of their bone mass for every month they spend in space despite their adherence to high impact exercise training programs and diets high in nutrients, potassium, calcium, and vitamin D, all designed to preserve the skeletal system. This article reviews the basics of bone formation and resorption and details how exposure to microgravity or simulated microgravity affects the structure and function of osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, and their mesenchymal and hematologic stem cell precursors. It details the critical roles that insulin-like growth factor-1 and its receptor insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (GFR1) play in maintaining bone homeostasis and how exposure of bone cells to microgravity affects the function of these growth factors. Lastly, it discusses the potential of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand, syncytin-A, sclerostin inhibitors and recombinant IGF-1 as a bone-saving treatment for astronauts in space and during their colonization of the Moon.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The Cre/loxP system is a tool for targeted recombination of DNA. For applying Cre recombinase-mediated genome modifications, there is a requirement for reliable, high-fidelity, and specific transgenic expression of the Cre recombinase. This study focuses on the reliability of different bone cell specific Cre models in the Cre/loxP system. In this study, DMP1-Cre transgenic mouse which has a transgene driven by DMP1 promotor that allows Cre-expression only in late stage osteoblasts and osteocytes was used. Ctsk-Cre mouse with a driven by Ctsk promoter was used so that only osteoclasts would undergo Cre-mediated recombination. E2A-Cre mouse where the Cre recombinase is driven by a global promoter E2A was also included in this study as a control line to test the Cre reporter line Ai9. Dmp1-Cre, Ctsk-Cre and E2A-Cre mice were crossed to the fluorescent Cre-reporter line—Ai9, which harbors a floxed stop codon, followed by the fluorophoremTomato, inserted into the Rosa26 locus. This construct is expected to give red fluorescence when it recombines with Cre-expressing mouse cells and no fluorescence in non-recombinant mouse cells. Double positive (Ai9+/Cre+) offspring selected by PCR were perfused, and 5mu-m thick section of bone and soft tissues were examined for red fluorescent expression. Cre positive cells were quantitated using ‘ImageJ’ software program. The DMP1-vi Cre mouse results showed significant expression in the targeted osteocytes and osteoblasts. In addition, skeletal muscle tissue also showed significant Cre- expression. Ctsk-Cre mice showed significant expression in targeted osteoclasts. But brain tissue was positive in Cre-expression. Bone-Cre mouse models are expected to express Cre recombinase only in their respective bone cells and they have been used for gene deletion studies in bone cells. However, this study has revealed that the bone cell specific Cre mouse models DMP1-Cre and Ctsk-Cre have unexpected expression in muscle and brain respectively. In order to use these models for targeted gene deletion in bone cells, further testing and studies have to be conducted.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / PTH increases osteoclasts by upregulating RANKL in cells of the osteoblastic lineage, but the precise differentiation stage of the PTH target cell remains undefined. Recent findings demonstrate that PTH regulates gene expression in osteocytes and that these cells are an important source of RANKL. We therefore investigated whether direct regulation of the RANKL gene by PTH in osteocytes is required to stimulate osteoclastic bone resorption. To address this question, we examined bone resorption and RANKL expression in transgenic mice in which PTH receptor signaling is activated only in osteocytes (DMP1-caPTHR1) crossed with mice lacking the distal control region regulated by PTH in the RANKL gene (DCR -/-). Longitudinal analysis of circulating C-terminal telopeptide (CTX) in male mice showed elevated resorption in growing mice that progressively decreased to plateau at 3-5 month of age. Resorption was significantly higher (~100%) in DMP1-caPTHR1 mice and non-significantly lower (15-30%) in DCR -/-mice, versus wild type littermates (WT) across all ages. CTX in compound DMP1-caPTHR1; DCR -/-mice was similar to DMP1-caPTHR1 mice at 1 and 2 months of age, but by 3 months of age, was significantly lower compared to DMP1-caPTHR1 mice (50% higher than WT), and by 5 months, it was undistinguishable from WT mice. Micro-CT analysis revealed lower tissue material density in the distal femur of DMP1-caPTHR1 mice, indicative of high remodeling, and this effect was partially corrected in compound vi mice. The increased resorption exhibited by DMP1-caPTHR1 mice was accompanied by elevated RANKL mRNA in bone at 1 and 5 months of age. RANKL expression levels displayed similar patterns to CTX levels in DMP1-caPTHR1; DCR -/-compound mice at 1 and 5 month of age. The same pattern of expression was observed for M-CSF. We conclude that resorption induced by PTH receptor signaling requires direct regulation of the RANKL gene in osteocytes, but this dependence is age specific. Whereas DCR-independent mechanisms involving gp130 cytokines or vitamin D 3 might operate in the growing skeleton, DCR-dependent, cAMP/PKA/CREB-activated mechanisms mediate resorption induced by PTH receptor signaling in the adult skeleton.

Hyperthyroidism causes secondary osteoporosis through favoring bone resorption over bone formation, leading to bone loss with elevated bone fragility. Osteocytes that reside within lacunae inside the mineralized bone matrix orchestrate the process of bone remodeling and can themselves actively resorb bone upon certain stimuli. Nevertheless, the interaction between thyroid hormones and osteocytes and the impact of hyperthyroidism on osteocyte cell function are still unknown. In a preliminary study, we analyzed bones from male C57BL/6 mice with drug-induced hyperthyroidism, which led to mild osteocytic osteolysis with 1.14-fold larger osteocyte lacunae and by 108.33% higher tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) activity in osteocytes of hyperthyroid mice compared to euthyroid mice. To test whether hyperthyroidism-induced bone changes are reversible, we rendered male mice hyperthyroid by adding levothyroxine into their drinking water for 4 weeks, followed by a weaning period of 4 weeks with access to normal drinking water. Hyperthyroid mice displayed cortical and trabecular bone loss due to high bone turnover, which recovered with weaning. Although canalicular number and osteocyte lacunar area were similar in euthyroid, hyperthyroid and weaned mice, the number of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase–mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end labeling (TUNEL)-positive osteocytes was 100% lower in the weaning group compared to euthyroid mice and the osteocytic TRAP activity was eightfold higher in hyperthyroid animals. The latter, along with a 3.75% lower average mineralization around the osteocyte lacunae in trabecular bone, suggests osteocytic osteolysis activity that, however, did not result in significantly enlarged osteocyte lacunae. In conclusion, we show a recovery of bone microarchitecture and turnover after reversal of hyperthyroidism to a euthyroid state. In contrast, osteocytic osteolysis was initiated in hyperthyroidism, but its effects were not reversed after 4 weeks of weaning. Due to the vast number of osteocytes in bone, we speculate that even minor individual cell functions might contribute to altered bone quality and mineral homeostasis in the setting of hyperthyroidism-induced bone disease. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

The following thesis presents a computational framework that can capture inherently non-linear and emergent biocomplex phenomena. The main motivation behind the investigations undertaken was the absence of a suitable platform that can simulate, both the continuous features as well as the discrete, interaction-based dynamics of a given biological system, or in short, dynamic reciprocity. In order to determine the most powerful approach to achieve this, the efficacy of two modelling paradigms, transport phenomena as well as agent-based, was evaluated and eventually combined. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) was utilised to investigate optimal boundary conditions, in terms of meeting cellular glucose consumption requirements and exposure to physiologically relevant shear fields, that would support mesenchymal stem cell growth in a 3-dimensional culture maintained in a commercially available bioreactor. In addition to validating the default bioreactor configuration and operational parameter ranges as suitable towards sustaining stem cell growth, the investigation underscored the effectiveness of CFD as a design tool. However, due to the homogeneity assumption, an untenable assumption for most biological systems, CFD often encounters difficulties in simulating the interaction-reliant evolution of cellular systems. Therefore, the efficacy of the agent-based approach was evaluated by simulating a morphogenetic event: development of in vitro osteogenic nodule. The novel model replicated most aspects observed in vitro, which included: spatial arrangement of relevant players inside the nodule, interaction-based development of the osteogenic nodules, and the dependence of nodule growth on its size. The model was subsequently applied to interrogate the various competing hypotheses on this process and identify the one that best captures transformation of osteoblasts into osteocytes, a subject of great conjecture. The results from this investigation annulled one of the competing hypotheses, which purported the slow-down in the rate of matrix deposition by certain osteoblasts, and also suggested the acquisition of polarity to be a non-random event. The agent-based model, however, due to being inherently computationally expensive, cannot be recommended to model bulk phenomena. Therefore, the two approaches were integrated to create a modelling platform that was utilised to capture dynamic reciprocity in a bioreactor. As a part of this investigation, an amended definition of dynamic reciprocity and its computational analogue, dynamic assimilation, were proposed. The multi-paradigm platform was validated by conducting melanoma chemotaxis under foetal bovine serum gradient. Due to its CFD and agent-based modalities, the platform can be employed as both a design optimisation as well as hypothesis testing tool.

Despite the continued development of specialized immunosuppressive therapies in the form of monoclonal antibodies, glucocorticoids remain a mainstay in the treatment of rheumatological and auto-inflammatory disorders. Therapeutic glucocorticoids are unmatched in the breadth of their immunosuppressive properties and deliver their anti-inflammatory effects at unparalleled speed. However, long-term exposure to therapeutic doses of glucocorticoids decreases bone mass and increases the risk of fractures – particularly in the spine – thus limiting their clinical use. Due to the abundant expression of glucocorticoid receptors across all skeletal cell populations and their respective progenitors, therapeutic glucocorticoids affect skeletal quality through a plethora of cellular targets and molecular mechanisms. However, recent evidence from rodent studies, supported by clinical data, highlights the considerable role of cells of the osteoblast lineage in the pathogenesis of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: it is now appreciated that cells of the osteoblast lineage are key targets of therapeutic glucocorticoids and have an outsized role in mediating their undesirable skeletal effects. As part of this article, we review the molecular mechanisms underpinning the detrimental effects of supraphysiological levels of glucocorticoids on cells of the osteoblast lineage including osteocytes and highlight the clinical implications of recent discoveries in the field.