In this paper we investigated how small Swedish manufacturing companies are setting prices for environmentally friendly products. We have looked at five companies from different industries and interviewed them about what environmentally related laws and regulationsthey need to follow, what measures they take to reduce their impact on the environment, how they handle costs associated with those measures and how they finally are setting the pricesfor their products. With that approach we tried to get a more holistic view and build up anunderstanding of what strategies they use and how they think when it comes to setting prices. From the interviews it became clear what difficulties it involves in estimating costs for environmentally related measures and using those estimations to set prices for their products.The costs for the measures are instead integrated with costs for other activities the companyperforms. We could see that the companies tried to find a balance between different pricingstrategies; finding a balanced mix between focusing on their own costs, their competitors' prices and their customers' perceived value of the product. It also showed that the companies, due to their size with limited resources, were forced to take a more pragmatic approach forsetting prices. They couldn’t explain well why they had set a certain price but the price theyset worked in such a way that they could sell their products with a satisfying margin. The paper is organized in the following way. We will first in the background and problem statement go through briefly the history of environmentally related work and the developmentof international protocols, agreements and laws that drives companies to develop more environmentally friendly products and adapt their operations to a more environmentallyfriendly society with less climate impact. In that part it is also defined what an environmentally friendly product is. We then go through the details about the method used for the investigation which is a qualitative method built on induction and ideas from grounded theory (Bryman & Bell, 2017). After that relevant theories related to pricing strategies and environmental management accounting are summarized. We then go through the data collection in which chapter we summarize the transcriptions of the interviews and in the chapter after analyze it with the help of thematic analysis and compare the information we have gathered with related theory. The analysis is done using five different categories which are: norms and standards, incentives, environmentally related measures, costs and pricing. The idea behind this approach is to get a more complete picture of what the companies are doing (in terms of reducing the impact on the environment), why they do it (what the incentives are) and how they do it (how they estimate costs and setting prices). Finally we go through the conclusions we can draw from the investigation and propose further research.

The objective of this thesis is to investigate and describe components of pricing system which influence the dynamic performance of a price leader manufacturing firm in an oligopoly capital intensive industry producing an identical intermediate product (s). The synthetic fibre industry is chosen as an illustrative case upon which the discussion is built. However, this work could generally be applied to a wide variety of organizations and situations. After discussing the suitability of system dynamics to the formulation of long-run pricing strategy, a model of the pricing system is constructed by using this technique. The behaviour of this system is examined in terms of feedback loops. That is to illustrate how the characteristics of these loops and the interaction among them affect the dynamic behaviour of the system, and how this behaviour can be improved via changing the components of these loops and/or their structures. The improved system is simulated under different external disturbances, certain parameter changes, and different pricing control policies. The simulation shows that the design of a set of robust pricing policies makes the system insensitive to external disturbance and error in parameters. It also shows that the ability of the firm to attain its growth and profitability objectives is affected by the chosen control pricing policies. Some potential applications of the model, particularly, as planning and training tools are highlighted. It is concluded that System Dynamics is an appropriate approach to the formulation of the long-run pricing strategies.

The Covid-19 crisis has had a profound impact on the global tourism industry, including theTurkish hotel sector. As hotels face unprecedented challenges, the adaptation of pricingstrategies becomes crucial for their survival and competitiveness. This thesis investigates theimpact of the Covid-19 outbreak on pricing strategies in the Turkish hotel industry and examinesthe strategies implemented by hotel managers to navigate this challenging period. Through a comprehensive research methodology, including interviews with hotel managers anddata analysis, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the pricing strategies adopted byhotels during the crisis. It explores the factors influencing the selection and effectiveness of thesestrategies and examines their relationship with the financial performance of hotels. The research objectives include assessing the impact of the Covid-19 crisis on pricing strategiesin the Turkish hotel industry, identifying the factors influencing the selection and effectivenessof hotel managers' strategies, exploring the relationship between these strategies and the financialperformance of hotels, and providing recommendations and guidelines for effective hotelmanagement. The results of this study make a valuable contribution to the current understanding of pricingstrategies in the hotel industry during times of crisis. By exploring the adaptation of pricingstrategies, this research provides new insights and practical implications for hotel managers.These findings aim to assist managers in formulating effective pricing strategies, ultimatelyenhancing the resilience and adaptability of the hotel industry. This research has important implications for both academia and industry, as it provides insightsinto the dynamics of pricing strategies in the context of a global crisis. By understanding thechallenges and opportunities faced by hotel managers during the crisis, this study contributes tothe broader understanding of hotel management pricing strategies in the hospitality sector.

Det finns i huvudsak tre väletablerade prissättningsstrategier; kostnadsbaserad,konkurrensbaserad och värdebaserad. Den värdebaserade prissättningsmetoden bestämmer ettpris baserat på produktens värde för användaren. I litteraturen anses den värdebaseradeprissättnings vara överlägsen de två andra prissättningsstrategierna, trots det använder sig deflesta företag av den kostnads- eller konkurrensbaserade strategin.Teoretikerna inom området anser att det finns svårigheter vid implementeringen avvärdebaserad prissättning som gör att företag väljer kostnads- eller konkurrensbaseradprisstrategi. Vi finner det därför intressant att undersöka varför ett företag väljer att frångå sinredan etablerade prissättningsstrategi och prissätta sina produkter utefter värdet som kundenuppelever. Med detta som grund valde vi att undersöka vilka bakomliggande faktorer som kanligga till grund för att adoptera värdebaserad prissättning samt vem eller vilka som styr ensådan organisationsförändring.Vår teoretiska referensram förklarar vad värdebaserad prissättning innebär samt vad somkrävs för att metoden effektivt ska implementeras. Vi har kopplat vår studie till signalteorioch institutionell teori. Empirin utgörs av material från intervjuer och observation som hargenomförts på Volvo Cars. Då Volvo Cars precis har börjat implementera värdebaseradprissättning på sina produkter har vi undersökt vad som gjorde att de valde att bytaprissättningsstrategi, vilka svårigheter de har haft, vilka som är delaktiga i processen samt ifallderas lönsamhet har ökat på grund av en ny prissättningsstrategi. Vi har genomfört vår studiegenom semistrukturerade intervjuer med personer som arbetar aktivit med prissättning hosVolvo Cars. Vi har även genomfört en observation genom att ta del av ett revenue forum däralla prissättningsfrågor presenteras och beslutas.I analysen har vi bearbetat empiri och teori som vi har samlat in under studien. Från våranalys bygger vi våra slutsatser som indikerar på att företag väljer att bytaprissättningsstrategi eftersom att de vill bli mer effektiva eller att deras tidigare prisstrategiinte är kompatibel i och med att företaget exempelvis genomgår produktförbättrinarg. Attlönsamheten ökar i takt med att företaget byter prissättningsstrategi behöver inte endast beropå att företaget har en ny prissättningsstrategi. I Volvo Cars fall har lönsamheten förbättrats ikombination av värdebaserad prissättning och bättre produkter. För att lyckas medvärdebaserad prissättning krävs det att företaget har förmåga att skapa medvetenhet om vilkafaktorer som kunderna värdesätter. / There is mainly three well established pricing strategies: cost based, competitor based andvalue based. The value based pricing strategy decides a price on the product based on thevalue for the user. In the litterature the value based princing strategy is considered to besuperior to the other two pricing strategys, even thoug a majority of companies use the costbased or competitor based strategy.Theorists in the field consider two difficulties with implementing value based pricing thatmake companies to choose cost based or competitor based pricing strategy. Therefore we findit interesting to investigate why a company choose to abandon their established pricingstrategy and price their products based on the value for the customer. On this bases wechoosed to investigate which underlying factors there might be for adopting value basedpricing and to study who controls this kind of organizational change.Our theoretical framework explains what value based pricing is and what is necessary to makethe implementation of the method effective. We have made a connection between our studyand signalling theory and insitutional theory. The emperical data is based on material from theinterviews and observations that we have made at Volvo Cars. Since Volvo Cars just recentlystarted implementing value based pricing on their products, we have studied what made themchange pricing strategy, what difficulties they have had, who are involved in the process andif their profitability has increased due to the new pricing strategy. We have made our studywith semi structured interviews with people who activly works with pricing at Volvo Cars.We have also made a observation by participating in a ”revenue forum” where all pricing arepresented and determined.We have combined the emperical data and the theoretical data in the analysis. From ouranalysis we build our conclusions that indicates on that a company choose a different pricingstrategy because they want to be more effective or that the previous pricing strategy doesn’tmatch with for exampel a company’s new product strategy. That the profitability exceeds atthe same time as the company change pricing strategy doesn’t have to be a effect of the newpricing strategy. At Volvo Cars the higher profitability is a result of the value based pricingcombined with better products. For a company to be successfull with value based pricing it isimportant that they have the ability to create awareness of which factors that the customervalues.

This study aims to investigate the causal linkage between developers’ pricing strategies and time on market (TOM) in the primary market for residential properties, i.e. a market where the seller is a developer or construction company, since this market differs significantly from the secondary or succession market.Regression models are estimated using a dataset from 11 500 newly built apartment units in the Stockholm, Sweden, sold between June 2010 and March 2018. To describe the investigated data and test the hypothesis if overpricing affects TOM a regression analysis was conducted. The Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) technique was applied explaining the size of TOM as a function of changes in a set of characteristics and conditions (independent variables) in one single equation. To measure an objective Degree of Overpricing (DOP), expected price was obtained by using market data and a hedonic price model controlling property attributes and market conditions. DOP is measured as the normalized difference between selling price and expected price.By using a constructed price model when studying the relationship between the price and multiple independent variables, the empirical results show that an increase in variables such as competitive supply, distance from city centre, monthly fee and selling time lead to a decrease in price while higher floor level lead to an increase in price. Looking into the degree of overpricing and its effect on TOM, a Time on Market model was applied. Generally, the empirical results demonstrate that higher DOP results in longer TOM. An increase in competitive supply and monthly fee result in shorter TOM. When it comes to size, smaller apartments seems to sell faster than larger apartments. Different modulations detect varying significances among the independent variables investigated. Overall, the models display a positive correlation between DOP and TOM.The originality and value of this study lies in the analysis of data collected from several development projects. This study is one of the first study that empirically examine the price-TOM relationship in the Stockholm primary housing market. / Denna studie syftar till att undersöka det kausala sambandet mellan bostadsutvecklarnas prissättningsstrategier och försäljningstiden (TOM) på primärmarknaden för bostäder, dvs. marknaden där säljaren är en utvecklare eller ett byggföretag, eftersom denna marknad skiljer sig avsevärt från den sekundära marknaden eller successionsmarknaden.Regressionsmodeller har beräknats med hjälp av ett dataset om 11 500 nyproducerade lägenheter i Stockholm, som såldes mellan juni 2010 och mars 2018. För att beskriva de undersökta uppgifterna och testa våra hypoteserna, regressionsanalys tillämpades – en statistisk teknik som förklarar storleken av en variabel, kallad beroende variabel, som en funktion av förändringar i en uppsättning andra variabler, som kallas oberoende variabler, genom kvantifiering av en enda ekvation. Metoden Ordinary Least Square (OLS) har använts för att förklara försäljningstidens storlek storleken som funktion av förändringar i en uppsättning egenskaper och villkor (oberoende variabler) i en enda ekvation. För att beräkna graden av överprissättning (DOP), förväntat pris har erhållits med hjälp av marknadsdata och en hedonisk prismodell som kontrollerar fastighetsattribut och marknadsförhållanden. DOP har beräknats som normaliserad skillnad mellan försäljningspris och förväntat pris.Genom att använda en konstruerad prismodell när man studerar förhållandet mellan pris och multipelständiga variabler visar de empiriska resultaten att en ökning av variabler som konkurrenskraftig tillförsel, avstånd från centrum, månadsavgift och annonstid leder till en prisminskning medan högre våning nivå leder till en ökning av priset. När det gäller storlek verkar mindre lägenheter sälja snabbare än större lägenheter. Om man tittar på graden av överprissättning och dess effekt på TOM, tillämpas en TOM-modell. De empiriska resultaten visar att högre DOP resulterar i längre TOM. En ökning av befintliga utbudet och månadsavgiften resulterar i kortare TOM. Överlag, trots vissa motstridiga resultat, visar grundmodellen en positiv korrelation mellan DOP och TOM.Originaliteten och värdet av denna studie ligger i analysen av data som samlats in från flera olika utvecklingsprojekt i Stockholmsområde. Denna studie är en av de första studier som empiriskt undersöker förhållande mellan prissättning och TOM på Stockholms primära bostadsmarknad.

Företag som arbetar med att sälja stora komplexa lösningar finner ofta att det tar mycket lång  tidatt sätta samman och prissätta sina lösningar. På grund av den stora konkurrens som råder för företag inom telekomindustrin, där de företag som erbjuder den mest attraktiva lösningen till det bästa priset vinner affären, är det essentiellt att de företag som konkurrerar om en affär är responsiva och har möjlighet att ändra sina priser till kunden snabbt vid behov. Skillnaden  mellan att snabbt kunna ge ett nytt pris, som fortfarande ger lönsamhet till företaget, mot att inte vara tillräckligt snabb kan vara att företaget vinner eller förlorar affären. I en sådan miljö är det av största vikt att avgöra hur en prisförändring påverkar respektive produkt i lösningen för att säkerställa att företaget har tillräckligt stor vinstmarginal i förhållande till de mål organisationen har satt upp. I dagsläget arbetar Ericsson med att fördela ut den typen av prisförändringar manuellt efter att de har vunnit en affär vilket leder till långa interna diskussioner om hur priset bör fördelas för att tillgodose de olika interna intressenterna. För de som arbetar med prissättningen av lösningar innebär detta bland annat att man måste säkerställa med de olika affärsområden som ansvarar för produkterna om det finns möjlighet att justera priserna och behov av att veta hur mycket de går att justera. I det här arbetet jämför vi den litteratur som finns kring prisstrategier och prissättning av stora komplexa lösningar. Vi använder Ericsson som fallstudie för att etablera hur ett ramverk kan skapas för att distribuera priset på en lösning på de olika produkter som ingår i lösningen. Detta gör vi genom att skapa en intern produktprioritering och följaktligen hur detta bör påverka en prisfördelning över en hel lösning genom att vikta de prisstyrande faktorer som en produkt bedöms ha mot hela lösningen. / Companies selling large and complex solutions often find that the process of configuring and pricing the solutions is a very time-consuming process. Due to the high degree of competition within the telecom industry, where the company offering the best solution to the most competitive price wins the deal, it is essential for companies to be responsive and able to  ework the price of their proposal. The difference between being able to offer a new solution  rice, that is still profitable for the company, and not being able to could be that the company wins or loses the deal. In such a business environment it is of high importance to be able to determine how the change of a solution price affects the products in the proposal in order to ensure that the margin of the proposal aligns with the organizational target margin. At Ericsson, the distribution of a solution price is determined manually after a deal has been won leading to internal discussions of how the price should be distributed between the stakeholders of the proposal. For those in charge of pricing the proposal this means that there is a need to discuss with the respective business unit at the company whether or not there is a possibility to adjust the prices of the proposal and in such a case how much they can be adjusted. In this thesis we compare the existing literature on pricing strategies and pricing large complex solutions. We perform a case study at Ericsson to establish how a top-down pricing framework could be designed to distribute the price of a proposal to the various products in the proposal. We achieve this by creating an internal prioritization of products and thereby we are able to determine how this should affect a price distribution over the entire proposal by calculating the weight of the price steering factors compared to the other products in the proposal.

<p>The dissertation is consisted of two essays on Affordable Care Act Marketplace plan pricing. These two essays are the two chapters of the dissertation respectively.  </p> <p>First essay studies the effect of Medicaid expansion on ACA Marketplace plan premium. The Affordable Care Act (ACA) aims to mitigate Americans’ uninsured crisis by expanding Medicaid and establishing the ACA Marketplace. The Medicaid expansion has a profound impact on Marketplace plan premiums. On the one hand, it lowers the premiums because the expansion drives out the people with lower income from Marketplace plans, resulting in a pool with a lower risk score for these plans. On the other hand, the Medicaid expansion may shrink the pool size of Marketplace plans, resulting in a riskier pool and a higher Marketplace plan premium. Integrating data from multiple sources, we study how these two competing effects vary across markets with different demographics. We find that the premium-reduction effect is less pronounced in more wealthy markets, while the premium-increase effect is less pronounced in more populous markets. We further find that the Medicaid expansion overall decreased the Marketplace premiums, with more reduction for Silver plans than Bronze plans. We also explore how the Medicaid expansion can lower Marketplace premiums indirectly through the change of the market structure. We finally show the heterogeneity of the net impact of the Medicaid expansion on Marketplace premiums across markets. Our results offer important policy and managerial implications.</p> <p>The second essay explores the effect of insurer competition on marketplace plan premiums. ACA Marketplace is a new market opportunity for insurers that grant them access to a new group of customers who were not insured before. Previous studies utilize ACA marketplace data and find that additional insurers on the market are associated with a premium decrease in Marketplaces for a benchmark plan. However, the impact of the insurer entry on the premium is not the same for all plans. Using data from 2014 to 2017, we empirically examine the effect of insurer entry on the premium on Marketplace. Our study first confirms the finding that the premium of the second-lowest Silver plans decreases in the number of insurers. We further find evidence of different price trends across plans of different quality levels with additional insurers on the market. When more insurers are on the market, the premium increases for higher-end plans and decreases for lower-end plans. Our analysis shows that intensified competition may exaggerate price discrimination in certain segments while alleviate price discrimination in other markets. The results offer important managerial implications. </p>

Spekulationsköp i nyproduktion av bostadsrätter förekommer i allt större utsträckning och antalet spekulationsköpare har ökat under senare år. Genom litteraturstudier samt intervjuer och enkäter med såväl byggherrar som spekulationsköpare och mäklare verksamma i nyproduktion har spekulationsmarknaden av nyproducerade bostadsrätter i Stockholms län utretts och kartlagts. Den generella spekulationsköparen är en man mellan 25-35 år med varierande kapitalstyrka som vill tjäna snabba pengar. Områden som är mest attraktiva för spekulationsköpare att investera i är centrala Stockholm och närförorter. Byggherrarna är samstämmiga i att spekulationsköp idag utgör ett problem främst med avseende på företagets affärsrisk. Mäklarna upplever inte spekulationsköp som ett problem. Både byggherrarna och mäklarna ser dock svårigheter i att förhindra spekulationsköp av nyproduktion eftersom det är svårt att identifiera vem som är spekulationsköpare. För att komma tillrätta med problematiken skulle samverkan mellan olika byggherrar och deras kundregister behöva komma till stånd, vilket strider mot befintlig lagstiftning. Efter granskning av köpprocessen i nyproduktion anser författarna att de mest riskfyllda spekulationsköparna kan förhindras genom att senarelägga upplåtelsen till tillträdet och då även låta köparen betala hela köpeskillingen som upplåtelseavgift. Idag betalas omkring 10 procent av den totala köpeskillingen som upplåtelseavgift upp till 6 månader innan tillträdet. Detta innebär att dagens köpare av nyproduktion inte behöver erlägga hela köpesumman förrän tillträde men kan ändå överlåta bostadsrätten till annan från upplåtelsen innan tillträde. Detta öppnar upp för handel med hög avkastning till låg insats. / Speculative buying of newly constructed condominiums has turned to be more common and the number of speculative buyers has increased in recent years. Through literature studies, surveys and interviews with developers as well as speculative buyers and real estate brokers within sales of new housing development, the speculation market of newly built condominiums in Stockholm have been investigated. In general, the most frequent speculation buyer is a man between 25-35 years with variable capital strength who want to make quick and easy money. Areas that are most attractive for speculative buyers to invest in are central Stockholm and the inner suburbs. The developers are unanimous in that speculative buying today is a problem mainly with respect to the company's business risk. The brokers do not experience speculative buying as a problem. Both developers and brokers see, however, difficulties in preventing speculative buying of new construction due to that it is difficult to identify who is a speculative buyer. To deal with the problem the developers would have to interact and share customer records, which is contrary to existing law. After examination of the buying process of new construction, the authors consider that the most risky speculative buyers can be prevented by delaying the concession and at that point also allow the buyer to pay the full purchase price fee. Today, buyers pay around 10 percent of the total purchase price as a concession fee up to 6 months before access. This means that today's buyers of new construction does not need to pay the entire purchase price until the access but can still sell the apartment to another person after the concession and before the access. This opens up for trade of high yield with a low effort.

Bakgrund: Digitaliseringen av sällanköpsvaruhandeln har bidragit till en strukturomställning där konkurrensen för fysiska butiker blivit allt hårdare. Brytpunkten för tillväxt inom modebranschen, som ingår i sällanköpsvaruhandeln, har skiftats från fysisk butik till e-handel och den snabbväxande e-handeln visar inga tecken på att avta, snarare tvärtom. Det sker en prispress, både online och i fysiska butiker, vilket innebär att det oftast är de svagaste butikerna (främst mindre fysiska butiker) som är de först drabbade, på grund av svårigheterna att anpassa sig. Studien visar därmed hur de fysiska butikerna skapar konkurrenskraft för att stå sig kvar på marknaden. Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att bidra till en ökad förståelse för hur fysiska små butiker inom modebranschen skapar konkurrenskraft, samt hur e-handeln påverkar konkurrensen för dessa. Forskningsfrågor: -Hur påverkas de små fysiska modebutikerna av e-handelns framväxt? Hur skiljer det sig mellan rural area och city area? -Hur skiljer sig marknadsföringsstrategier och prissättningsstrategier från befintliga små fysiska butiker inom modebranschen i jämförelse med nedlagda butiker? -Hur ska de fysiska små modebutikerna undvika butiksdöd och hantera utmaningarna för långsiktig överlevnad? Resultat: Studien resulterar i att alla fallföretag skapar konkurrenskraft genom att erbjuda sina kunder en hög personlig service där kunden alltid är i fokus och kommer i första hand. Den höga personliga servicen är en ännu viktigare konkurrensstrategi om butiken är belägen i en rural area. På sikt kommer däremot små fysiska modebutiker behöva anpassa sig till branschens strukturomvandling och erbjuda kunder ett mer sömlöst upplägg för att kunna konkurrera med e-handeln. I dagsläget har e-handeln ett stort försprång i både pris och räckvidd och en strukturomställning skulle innebära att fysisk butik och e-handel konkurrerar på liknande villkor och på så vis undviks dagens konkurrensasymmetri. / Background: The digitalization of the retail industry has contributed to a restructuring, where competition for physical stores has become increasingly fierce. The breaking point for the growth of the fashion industry has shifted from the physical store to e-commerce and the fast-growing e-commerce is showing no signs of abating, but rather the opposite. There is a constant pressure on prices, both online and in physical stores, which means that it is usually the weakest stores (mainly smaller physical stores) which are the first affected because of the difficulties in adapting. The study thus shows how the physical stores create competitiveness to remain in the market. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to contribute to an increased understanding of how physical small stores in the fashion industry creates competitiveness, and how e-commerce affects competition for these. Research questions: -How do the physical small stores (within the fashion industry) create competitiveness based on marketing strategies and pricing strategies? How does it differ between the rural area and the city area? -How do marketing strategies and pricing strategies differ from existing small physical stores in the fashion industry in comparison to closed stores? -How should the physical small fashion stores handle the challenges of long-term survival? Conclusion: The study results in all case companies creating competitiveness by offering their customers a high personal service where the customer is always in focus and comes first. The high personal service is an even more important competitive strategy if the store is located in a rural area. In the long run, small physical fashion stores will need to adapt to the structural transformation and offer customers a more seamless design in order to compete with e-commerce. At present, e-commerce has a major advantage in both price and scope, and a restructuring would mean that physical stores and e-commerce compete on similar terms and thus avoid today’s competitive asymmetry.

Yes / The issues of channel conflict and channel power have received widespread research attention, including Geylani et al.’s (2007) work on channel relations in an asymmetric retail setting. Specifically, these authors suggest that a manufacturer can respond to a dominant retailer’s pricing pressure by raising the wholesale price for a weak retailer over that for the dominant retailer while transferring demand to the weak retailer channel via cooperative advertising. But, is online expansion another kind of strategic manufacturer’s optimal response to a dominant retailer? In this paper, we extend this work by adding a direct online selling channel to illustrate the impact of the manufacturer’s internet entry on firms’ demands, profits, and pricing strategies and on consumer welfare. Our analysis thus includes a condition in which the manufacturer can add an online channel. If such an online channel is opened, the channel-supported network externality will always benefit the manufacturer but hurt the retailers. Consumers, however, will only benefit from the network externality when a dominant retailer is present and will be hurt when both retailers are symmetric. / National Natural Science Foundation of China, Chongqing’s Natural Science Foundation, British Academy