University of Macau / Faculty of Arts and Humanities. / Department of English

Les universités françaises sont en crise car le taux d’échec et d’abandon y est prégnant depuis plusieurs années. Les réformes nées ou naissantes poursuivent toutes le même but : la réussite. Alors que plusieurs dispositifs d’aide sont désormais offerts aux étudiants, ce travail se propose d’approfondir les travaux menés sur le non-recours au tutorat méthodologique. Il interroge pour cela la variable « information », et s’articule autour de trois hypothèses. - Les étudiants de premier cycle ont des capacités attentionnelles limitées qui les empêchent de faire des choix rationnels.- La surabondance informationnelle en premier cycle ne permet pas aux étudiants de recourir au tutorat méthodologique.- Les étudiants « engagés » qui reçoivent une information claire des potentialités et des objectifs du dispositif d’aide, et qui l’utilisent de manière optimale, réussissent. Pour les tester, nous avons fait appel à deux outils d’enquête complémentaires.Dans un premier temps, vingt-deux tuteurs ont été interviewés, ainsi que la directrice des études et de la vie universitaire, et trois directeurs d'Unité de Formation et de Recherche (UFR). Les résultats de ces enquêtes qualitatives réalisées in situ, révèlent que le tutorat méthodologique souffre de défauts d’information, et que des efforts doivent être fournis dans ce domaine. Des pistes d’amélioration pour informer efficacement les primo-entrants en vue d’augmenter le taux de fréquentation aux séances de tutorat sont donc présentées. Dans un second temps, ont été interrogés par questionnaires 392 étudiants de première année issus des trois facultés que compte l’Université de Haute-Alsace (UHA). Cette enquête avait pour buts de vérifier si les étudiants de premier cycle étaient bien informés des potentialités et des objectifs du tutorat méthodologique, et de faire le lien entre l’étudiant, usager d’un dispositif d’accompagnement méthodologique ou pédagogique, et le dispositif lui-même dans l’atteinte des objectifs qu’il s’est donnés. A partir du « modèle d’efficacité individuelle d’un dispositif d’accompagnement méthodologique ou pédagogique » de Ben Abid-Zarrouk (2013), les virtualités d’un tel outil ont été questionnées ainsi que les caractéristiques de ses utilisateurs. Cette recherche montre notamment que les étudiants qui établissent des stratégies de réussite optimale, qui sont attentifs aux informations relatives aux potentialités des dispositifs d’aide à la réussite en termes de réussite, qui l’estiment utile et qui en sont donc satisfaits, réussissent mieux que les autres, y compris les tutorés. Puis, en s’appuyant sur l’analyse factorielle, cette cohorte a pu être découpée en cinq classes : « Les Scolaires », « Les Oisifs », « Les Retardataires », « Les Irréprochables » et « Les Inadaptés », et huit variables qui se rapportent au tutorat ont pu être caractérisées. / French universities are in crisis because the failure and dropout rates among students have remained high for years. The existing reforms or those being tested are all pursuing the same purpose: achievement. When many assistive devices are now offered to students, this work will be dedicated to the further development of works undertaken on the non-use of methodological tutoring. For this purpose, it will interrogate the variable “information” and will focus on three hypotheses.- Freshmen have limited focusing capacities which do not allow them to make reasonable choices.- Information overload in the first university years does not allow students to use the methodological tutoring. - The “committed” students, who receive clear information about the potential and objectives of this aid scheme and who use it in the best possible manner, succeed.We have used two complementary survey tools to test them.First, twenty-two tutors have been interviewed, as well as the director of studies and university life and three directors of Training and Research Faculty. The results of such qualitative on-site investigations show that methodological tutoring is suffering from lack of information, and efforts must be made in this field. Sources of improvement, in order to inform efficiently the newcomers and increase the attendance rate in tutoring sessions, are thus introduced.Second, 392 freshmen, from the three faculties of the University of Haute-Alsace (UHA), completed questionnaires we gave them. This survey was conducted to determine if undergraduates had been well informed about the potential and objectives of the methodological tutoring and to establish a link between the student using a personalized methodological or educational support and the support mechanism itself in the achievement of the objectives of the plan. The potential of such a tool has been questioned, as well as the characteristics of its users in Ben Abid-Zarrouk’s « modèle d’efficacité individuelle d’un dispositif d’accompagnement méthodologique ou pédagogique » (2013).This research shows that students, who establish optimal achievement strategies, care about information related to the potential of success assistance schemes, find it useful and are then satisfied with it, can make it better than the others, including the tutored ones. So, based upon factor analysis, this cohort can be divided into five classes: “The School-goers”, “The Idle Ones”, The Stragglers”, “The Blameless”, “The Unsuitable Ones”, and eight variables related to tutoring have been characterized.

Josep Puig Pujades (1883-1949) fou el principal renovador del republicanisme empordanès que entroncà la vella tradició federal amb el catalanisme progressista del primer terç del segle XX. La seva àmplia producció periodística i literària permeten constatar l’important paper ideològic que va desenvolupar com a intel•lectual en l’objectiu de crear un projecte cívicocultural com a eina transformadora de la societat a través del foment de l’educació i la cultura. Els càrrecs de govern que assumí durant la Segona República i les responsabilitats en l’òrgan directori d’Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya contribuïren a forjar-lo com una de les figures més rellevants del catalanisme republicà anterior a la guerra civil. / Josep Puig Pujades (1883-1949) was key to the revival of Republicanism. This movement was a direct inheritor of the long federalist tradition in Empordà combined with Progressive Catalanism seen in the first part of the twentieth century. His extensive journalistic and literary writings show the important ideological role he played as an intellectual in the creation of a civic-cultural project as a means of transforming society through the promotion of education and culture. The government positions he held during the Second Republic and responsibilities on the board of Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya helped to consolidate him as one of the leading figures of Catalanist Republicanism before the Spanish Civil War.

L’épidémie du VIH-1 dure maintenant depuis plus de 25 ans. La grande diversité génétique de ce virus est un obstacle majeur en vue de l’éradication de cette pandémie. Au cours des années, le VIH-1 a évolué en plus de cinquante sous-types ou formes recombinantes. Cette diversité génétique est influencée par diverses pressions de sélection, incluant les pressions du système immunitaire de l’hôte et les agents antirétroviraux (ARV). En effet, bien que les ARV aient considérablement réduit les taux de morbidité et de mortalité, en plus d’améliorer la qualité et l’espérance de vie des personnes atteintes du VIH-1, ces traitements sont complexes, dispendieux et amènent leur lot de toxicité pouvant mener à des concentrations plasmatiques sous-optimales pour contrôler la réplication virale. Ceci va permettre l’émergence de variantes virales portant des mutations de résistance aux ARV. Ce phénomène est encore plus complexe lorsque l’on prend en considération l’immense diversité génétique des différents sous-types. De plus, le virus du VIH est capable de persister sous forme latente dans diverses populations cellulaires, rendant ainsi son éradication extrêmement difficile. Des stratégies pouvant restreindre la diversité virale ont donc été préconisées dans le but de favoriser les réponses immunes de l’hôte pour le contrôle de l’infection et d’identifier des variantes virales offrant une meilleure cible pour des stratégies vaccinales ou immunothérapeutiques. Dans cet esprit, nous avons donc étudié, chez des sujets infectés récemment par le VIH-1, l’effet du traitement ARV précoce sur la diversité virale de la région C2V5 du gène enveloppe ainsi que sur la taille des réservoirs. En deuxième lieu, nous avons caractérisé la pression de sélection des ARV sur des souches virales de sous types variés non-B, chez des patients du Mali et du Burkina Faso afin d’évaluer les voies d’échappement viral dans un fond génétique différent du sous-type B largement prévalent en Amérique du Nord. Notre étude a démontré la présence d’une population virale très homogène et peu diversifiée dans les premières semaines suivant l’infection, qui évolue pour atteindre une diversification de +0,23% à la fin de la première année. Cette diversification est plus importante chez les sujets n’ayant pas initié de traitement. De plus, ceci s’accompagne d’un plus grand nombre de particules virales infectieuses dans les réservoirs viraux des cellules mononucléées du sang périphérique (PBMC) chez ces sujets. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’initiation précoce du traitement pourrait avoir un effet bénéfique en retardant l’évolution virale ainsi que la taille des réservoirs, ce qui pourrait supporter une réponse immune mieux ciblée et potentiellement des stratégies immunothérapeutiques permettant d’éradiquer le virus. Nous avons également suivi 801 sujets infectés par des sous-types non-B sur le point de débuter un traitement antirétroviral. Bien que la majorité des sujets ait été à un stade avancé de la maladie, plus de 75% des individus ont obtenu une charge virale indétectable après 6 mois d’ARV, témoignant de l’efficacité comparable des ARV sur les sous-types non-B et B. Toutefois, contrairement aux virus de sous-type B, nous avons observé différentes voies moléculaires de résistance chez les sous type non-B, particulièrement chez les sous-types AGK/AK/K pour lesquels les voies de résistances étaient associées de façon prédominante aux TAM2. De plus, bien que la divergence entre les virus retrouvés chez les patients d’une même région soit faible, nos analyses phylogénétiques ont permis de conclure que ces mutations de résistance se sont produites de novo et non à partir d’un ancêtre commun porteur de résistance. Cependant, notre dernière étude au Mali nous a permis d’évaluer la résistance primaire à près de 10% et des études phylogénétiques seront effectuées afin d’évaluer la circulation de ces souches résistantes dans la population. Ces études suggèrent qu’un contrôle de la réplication virale par les ARV peut freiner la diversité du VIH et ainsi ouvrir la voie à un contrôle immunologique ciblé, utilisant de nouvelles stratégies vaccinales ou immunothérapeutiques. Toutefois, une thérapie antirétrovirale sous-optimale (adhérence, toxicité) peut conduire à l’échappement virologique en favorisant l’émergence et la dissémination de souches résistantes. / The HIV epidemic has been ongoing for 25 years. The striking genetic diversity of this virus is a formidable obstacle to the eradication of the pandemic. Throughout the years, HIV-1 has evolved in more than fifty subtypes and circulating recombinants forms. This evolution is shaped by selective pressures including the host immune responses and sub-optimal HAART treatment. In the era of HAART, HIV associated morbidity and mortality has decreased dramatically and significantly improved the life expectancy of infected individuals. However, treatments are complex, expensive and are associated with toxicity. When viral replication is not fully contained, drug mutations arise which further complicate treatment options. This phenomenon is even more complex when taking into account the great genetic diversity of various HIV-1 subtypes. HIV also has the capacity to persist in different cellular population and thus eradication is extremely difficult to achieve. Strategies aiming at limiting viral diversity and improving the host immune responses to control HIV replication are needed. The identification of conserved viral variants could ultimately be useful in vaccine design or as an immunotherapeutic target. Thus, we have studied the effects early HAART during primary HIV infection has on viral diversity in the C2V5 region of the env gene and on the size of viral reservoir. We then characterized the selective pressure of ARV on non-B subtype and evaluated drug resistance pathways in non-B HIV genetic background in infected subjects from Mali and Burkina Faso as they initiated treatment. Our study demonstrated a homogenous viral population during the first weeks post infection. Viral diversity did increase during the first year to reach +0.23% at the end of the first year post infection. Patients not initiating treatment exhibited a higher magnitude of viral diversity, and the size of their viral reservoir as determined by the number of infectious units per million PBMC’s also reached higher values. Our results suggest that early treatment, by slowing viral evolution and size of viral reservoir, could permit strong immune system responses against contemporaneous viruses and could help achieved eradication. In another study, we followed 801 patients infected with non-B subtype who were about to start antiretroviral therapy. The majority of these patients were at advanced stages of the infection. Nevertheless, more than 75% achieved undetectable viral load after 6 months of therapy. This very encouraging result led us to conclude that antiretroviral therapy was efficient in controlling replication in non-B subtype infection at similar level than in subtype B infection. In contrast to subtype B infection, we observed different molecular resistance pathways in non-B subtypes, particularly in the AGK/AK/K subtype for which mutations were predominantly associated with the TAM2 pathway. Although our phylogenetic analysis showed a very closely related viral population in our population, we were able to determine that those mutations were not from a common ancestral virus transmitted in this population but rather were emerging de novo in those patients. We conducted another study in Mali and our results showed a primary drug resistance frequency of 10%. We are now conducting phlylogenetic studies to evaluate the prevalence of drug resistance virus transmission in this population. Our studies suggest that controlling viral replication by treatment could delay viral evolution. A slower viral diversity could have a beneficial effect on the immune system and could lead to the development of new vaccines or immunotherapeutics strategies. However, sub-optimal drugs concentrations (poor adherence, toxicitiy) could lead to viral escape and emergence of virus bearing drug resistance mutations which could further be disseminated in the population.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Wisconsin, 1974, with a new preface. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 409-427) and index.

Este trabalho é o resultado de uma comparação entre dois romances da Língua Portuguesa: O primo Basílio, de Eça de Queirós, publicado em 1878 e Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, de Machado de Assis, publicado em livro no ano de 1881. A pesquisa partiu das críticas feitas por Machado ao romance de adultério queirosiano (veiculadas em 16 e 30 de abril de 1878 no Cruzeiro) e buscou investigar a possível influência de Eça de Queirós e das concepções realistas de Emile Zola na reformulação estilística machadiana. Nas páginas do Cruzeiro, Machado externou opinião contrária ao método de composição usado por Eça de Queirós em O primo Basílio e também se manifestou antagônico a alguns pressupostos do Realismo. Considerando a concepção de angústia da influência, proposta por Harold Bloom e o conceito de polêmica velada formulado por Mikhail Bakhtin, postula-se que, ao escrever as Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, Machado de Assis praticou alguns dos movimentos revisionários descritos por Bloom, operando reparos em pontos do método de composição que julgou falhos em O primo Basílio e, por intermédio de Brás Cubas, questionou alguns dos pressupostos da representação realista zoliana. / The present work is the result of a comparison between two Portuguese language novels: Eça de Queirós’ O primo Basílio, (1878) and Machado de Assis’ Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, published in book form in 1881. The study originated from Machado’s critique of Queirós’ novel of adultery (which appeared on 16 and 30 April, 1878 in Cruzeiro magazine) and sought to investigate the possible influence of Eça de Queiros and the Realism of Emile Zola on Machado’s stylistic reformulation. In the pages of Cruzeiro, Machado expressed his opinion in opposition to the compositional method used by Eça de Queirós in O primo Basílio and to some of the assumptions of Realism. In the light of Harold Bloom’s concept of the anxiety of influence and Mikhail Bakhtin’s concept of veiled polemic, it is postulated that in writing Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, Machado de Assis made use of some revisionary movements described by Bloom, making repairs to points in the composition method that he thought defective in O primo Basílio and, through the narrator Brás Cubas, questioning some of the assumptions of Zola’s Realist mode of representation.

Este trabalho é o resultado de uma comparação entre dois romances da Língua Portuguesa: O primo Basílio, de Eça de Queirós, publicado em 1878 e Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, de Machado de Assis, publicado em livro no ano de 1881. A pesquisa partiu das críticas feitas por Machado ao romance de adultério queirosiano (veiculadas em 16 e 30 de abril de 1878 no Cruzeiro) e buscou investigar a possível influência de Eça de Queirós e das concepções realistas de Emile Zola na reformulação estilística machadiana. Nas páginas do Cruzeiro, Machado externou opinião contrária ao método de composição usado por Eça de Queirós em O primo Basílio e também se manifestou antagônico a alguns pressupostos do Realismo. Considerando a concepção de angústia da influência, proposta por Harold Bloom e o conceito de polêmica velada formulado por Mikhail Bakhtin, postula-se que, ao escrever as Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, Machado de Assis praticou alguns dos movimentos revisionários descritos por Bloom, operando reparos em pontos do método de composição que julgou falhos em O primo Basílio e, por intermédio de Brás Cubas, questionou alguns dos pressupostos da representação realista zoliana. / The present work is the result of a comparison between two Portuguese language novels: Eça de Queirós’ O primo Basílio, (1878) and Machado de Assis’ Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, published in book form in 1881. The study originated from Machado’s critique of Queirós’ novel of adultery (which appeared on 16 and 30 April, 1878 in Cruzeiro magazine) and sought to investigate the possible influence of Eça de Queiros and the Realism of Emile Zola on Machado’s stylistic reformulation. In the pages of Cruzeiro, Machado expressed his opinion in opposition to the compositional method used by Eça de Queirós in O primo Basílio and to some of the assumptions of Realism. In the light of Harold Bloom’s concept of the anxiety of influence and Mikhail Bakhtin’s concept of veiled polemic, it is postulated that in writing Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, Machado de Assis made use of some revisionary movements described by Bloom, making repairs to points in the composition method that he thought defective in O primo Basílio and, through the narrator Brás Cubas, questioning some of the assumptions of Zola’s Realist mode of representation.

HOLANDA, Antônio Euclides Vega de Pitombeira e Nogueira. De Eça a Machado, ou Um diálogo entre concepções de representação da realidade. 2013. 138f. – Dissertação (Mestrado) – Universidade Federal do Ceará, Programa de Pós-graduação em Letras, Fortaleza (CE), 2013. / Submitted by Márcia Araújo (marcia_m_bezerra@yahoo.com.br) on 2014-05-20T13:12:24Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2013_dis_aevpnholanda.pdf: 667077 bytes, checksum: b38fe4a90b067b3183a726c27f9b1b85 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Márcia Araújo(marcia_m_bezerra@yahoo.com.br) on 2014-05-20T13:47:55Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2013_dis_aevpnholanda.pdf: 667077 bytes, checksum: b38fe4a90b067b3183a726c27f9b1b85 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-05-20T13:47:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2013_dis_aevpnholanda.pdf: 667077 bytes, checksum: b38fe4a90b067b3183a726c27f9b1b85 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / This comparative study works with two types of literary works. The novels The cousin Basílio and Posthumous Memoirs Of Brás Cubas are related through the literary criticism on the Portuguese novel published in Brazil in 1878. Among the critics, there was Machado de Assis. The text examines various elements of the novel by Eça de Queirós, among them there are Realism, narrator and character construction. Besides that, it is analysed how the novel by Eça de Queirós was received by literary criticism in Brazil in 1878, especially by Machado de Assis, whose critical text became famous. In this essay, the Brazilian author invokes elements of moral and aesthetic nature against the Portuguese novel, thus revealing elements of what could be named as Ars poetics of Machado de Assis. The text also evaluates the changes tried by the Brazilian novelist in addressing issues and elements present in the Portuguese text. Thus, it proposes the idea that reading The Cousin Basílio influenced the production of Posthumous Memoirs Of Brás Cubas. / O presente trabalho relaciona dois tipos de produções literárias. Os romances O primo Basílio e Memória póstumas de Brás Cubas são estudados por meio das críticas literárias sobre o romance português publicadas no Brasil em 1878. Dentre os críticos, estava Machado de Assis. O texto analisa vários elementos do romance de Eça de Queirós, entre os quais estão o Realismo, o narrador e a construção das personagens. Além disso, trata-se da maneira como a obra eciana foi recebida pela crítica literária no Brasil em 1878, especialmente por Machado de Assis, cujo texto crítico ficou famoso. Nesse ensaio, o autor brasileiro invoca, em desfavor do romance português, alguns elementos de natureza estética e moral, descortinando o que se pode denominar Ars Poética machadiana. Por fim, o texto apresenta reflexões sobre as mudanças impetradas pelo romancista brasileiro na abordagem de questões e elementos presentes no texto eciano. Assim, defende-se a ideia de que a leitura de O primo Basílio influiu na produção de Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas.

Este trabalho é o resultado de uma comparação entre dois romances da Língua Portuguesa: O primo Basílio, de Eça de Queirós, publicado em 1878 e Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, de Machado de Assis, publicado em livro no ano de 1881. A pesquisa partiu das críticas feitas por Machado ao romance de adultério queirosiano (veiculadas em 16 e 30 de abril de 1878 no Cruzeiro) e buscou investigar a possível influência de Eça de Queirós e das concepções realistas de Emile Zola na reformulação estilística machadiana. Nas páginas do Cruzeiro, Machado externou opinião contrária ao método de composição usado por Eça de Queirós em O primo Basílio e também se manifestou antagônico a alguns pressupostos do Realismo. Considerando a concepção de angústia da influência, proposta por Harold Bloom e o conceito de polêmica velada formulado por Mikhail Bakhtin, postula-se que, ao escrever as Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, Machado de Assis praticou alguns dos movimentos revisionários descritos por Bloom, operando reparos em pontos do método de composição que julgou falhos em O primo Basílio e, por intermédio de Brás Cubas, questionou alguns dos pressupostos da representação realista zoliana. / The present work is the result of a comparison between two Portuguese language novels: Eça de Queirós’ O primo Basílio, (1878) and Machado de Assis’ Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, published in book form in 1881. The study originated from Machado’s critique of Queirós’ novel of adultery (which appeared on 16 and 30 April, 1878 in Cruzeiro magazine) and sought to investigate the possible influence of Eça de Queiros and the Realism of Emile Zola on Machado’s stylistic reformulation. In the pages of Cruzeiro, Machado expressed his opinion in opposition to the compositional method used by Eça de Queirós in O primo Basílio and to some of the assumptions of Realism. In the light of Harold Bloom’s concept of the anxiety of influence and Mikhail Bakhtin’s concept of veiled polemic, it is postulated that in writing Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, Machado de Assis made use of some revisionary movements described by Bloom, making repairs to points in the composition method that he thought defective in O primo Basílio and, through the narrator Brás Cubas, questioning some of the assumptions of Zola’s Realist mode of representation.

L’épidémiologie moléculaire des virus VIH-1 en France est caractérisée par une augmentation constante de la diversité virologique et de la fréquence des virus de sous-types non-B chez les patients en primo-infection. Entre 1997 et 2007, 28.4% des 591 patients suivis étaient infectés par des virus de sous-types non-B. De plus, 49 patients (8.3%) étaient infectés par des souches de sous-types différents sur les gènes pol et env, témoignant d’évènements de recombinaisons entre ces gènes. Ces virus recombinants étaient isolés à la fois chez des patients originaires d’Afrique sub-saharienne (28.3%) et des sujets caucasiens (6.3%). Ces résultats témoignent des échanges de souches virales entre les populations d'origine africaine et caucasienne, contribuant encore à augmenter la diversité virologique dans ces deux populations. Parmi 131 virus de sous-types non-B, 12.2% étaient classés comme ayant un tropisme CXCR4 par méthode génotypique, mais seulement 0.8% par méthode phénotypique, indiquant d’une part la faible proportion de virus non-B de tropisme CXCR4 en primo-infection en France, et d’autre part le manque de spécificité des méthodes génotypiques de détermination du tropisme pour ces sous-types, rendant nécessaire la mise au point d’autres algorithmes spécifiques pour ces virus.L’analyse de 987 virus isolés dans la cohorte entre 1999 et 2010 a mis en évidence que 12.7% d’entre eux étaient regroupés en "clusters" de transmission. Les patients en primo-infection contribuent donc de façon significative à la propagation de l’épidémie de VIH en France, particulièrement les hommes homo/bi-sexuels, avec une fréquence augmentant au cours de la période récente (2006-2010).La comparaison des quasi-espèces virales circulant concomitamment chez 8 patients en primo-infection (« receveurs ») et leurs 8 partenaires sexuels respectifs (« donneurs ») a révélé dans tous les cas la transmission d’un virus unique, présent de façon minoritaire parmi les sous-populations virales du donneur. La transmission virale muqueuse implique donc une sélection génétique drastique. / High genetic diversity is a major characteristics of HIV-1. In France, although subtype B strains are still predominant, the proportion of non-B viruses isolated in patients at the time of primary HIV-1 (PHI) infection increases over time. Between 1997 and 2007, 28.4% of patients were infected with non-B subtypes strains. Forty-nine viruses showed different phylogenies between the pol and env genes, indicating that recombinations have occurred in 8.3% of cases. These recombinants were isolated both in patients from Sub-Saharan Africa (28.3%) and in white subjects (6.3%).The phenotypic analysis of viral tropism of 131 non-B strains showed a very low (0.8%) proportion of CXCR4-tropic strains (X4 strains) at the time of PHI. Compared to phenotypic tests, genotypic predictions can overestimate (12.2% versus 0.8%) the proportion of X4 strains in non-B subtypes.The phylogenetic analysis of 987 strains isolated in 1999-2010 showed that 12.7% of PHI cosegregated into 56 transmission chains. PHIs are a significant source of onward transmission, especially in men having sex with men, with increasing frequency during the recent years (10.2% in 1999-2006 versus 15.2% in 2006-2010, p=0.02).The comparison of the viral quasispecies isolated in plasma and PBMC samples from 8 patients at the time of PHI ("recipients") and their transmitting partners ("donors") suggested that a severe genetic bottleneck occurrs during HIV-1 heterosexual and homosexual transmission. Indeed, we observed in all cases the transmission of a single variant, which was derived from an infrequent variant population within the blood of the donor. The proportion of X4 quasispecies in donors were higher in case of X4 versus CCR5-tropic viral transmission, suggesting that X4 transmission may be associated with a threshold of X4 circulating quasispecies in donors.