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"The exclusive focus on the state-centric paradigm of IHRL fails to address the increasing number of an array of private (non-state) actors who may come into play in terms of violations of human rights. Therefore while this study proceeds from the premise that the state is the primary focus of IHRL, it will be argued that the state cannot certainly be deemed the sole bearer of responsibility for human rights violations in view of the increase in the number of potential violators. Consequently, the study aims to address three issues. Firstly, it seeks to investigate the increase in the number of violators of human rights to include non-state actors (particularly transnational (multinational) corporations TNCs) and the effect of this increase on the violations of ESCRs. While the discussion will focus on the accountability of private actors vis-à-vis the protection of ESCRs, the area of civil and political rights is considered no less important. The discussion takes cognisance of the indivisibility and inter-dependence of all human rights in the sense that no precise contours separating all human rights can be said to exist. Secondly, the study seeks to review the dominant approach to human rights including human rights treaties and other relevant instruments to assess their potential in asserting the human rights obligations (including, ESCRs obligations)) of non-state actors. Thirdly and with specific reference to the TNC as a non-state actor in the African context, the study seeks to investigate the challenges to the problem of implementing the accountability of TNCs through the IHRL framework and suggest ways of addressing these challenges. Central focus will be placed on the accountability of TNCs for human rights violations, particularly ESCRs. The choice of TNCs in this study is justified on account of the immense economic power wielded by these entities vis a vis the changing notion of state sovereignty as will be emphasized in chapter 2. At a more specific level, the case study on the problem of accountability of TNCs is narrowed down to an African context particularly for two reasons. Firstly, the problem of control of TNCs is highlighted more in the case of the weaker state in the African context. Secondly, the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights’ recent decision in the SERAC case that forms the basis of the case study in chapter 4 brings into light within a human rights treaty monitoring framework, the challenges of TNC- accountability within the context of Africa." -- Chapter 1. / Prepared under the supervision of Professor Tobias van Reenen at the Faculty of Law, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2002. / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html / Centre for Human Rights / LLM

Le règlement des différends forme la clef de voûte du système commercial multilatéral et une contribution sans précédent de l'OMC à la stabilité de l'économie mondiale. Sans un moyen de régler les différends, le système fondé sur des règles ne serait d’aucune utilité car celles-ci ne pourraient pas être appliquées. Cette organisation est dotée de moyens institutionnels et de régulation propres. L’ORD, Organe de règlement des différends, arbitre des différends commerciaux internationaux qui vise à garantir le bon fonctionnement de l’OMC et à la correction des défauts majeurs apparus lors du GATT. Il est aujourd’hui l’un des mécanismes interétatiques parmi les plus actifs sur le plan international.Pourtant, le jeu économique international n’implique pas seulement les États, les acteurs privés, affectés par les actes et les comportements commerciaux, y cherchent à jouer un rôle concret et efficace. Cette étude aborde la question de la possibilité d’intervention des acteurs privés aux procédures de règlement des différends de l’OMC. Elle a pour objet de présenter les formes actuelles d’intervention de ces acteurs au sein de ces procédures et les possibilités d’un renforcement de leur participation au sein de l’OMC. / The dispute settlement forms the cornerstone of the multilateral trading system and an unprecedented contribution of the WTO to the stability of the global economy. Without a means of settling disputes, the rules-based system would be of no use because the rules could not be applied. This organization has the institutional capacity and specific regulation. The Dispute Settlement Body, arbiter of international trade disputes aims to ensure a proper functioning of the WTO and correction of major shortcomings recognized in the GATT. It is now one of the most active interstate mechanisms at the international level.However, the international economic game involves not only states. Private actors affected by the trade actions and conduct, are seeking to play a meaningful and effective role. This research discusses the possibility of the involvement of private actors in the dispute settlement procedures of the WTO. It aims to present current forms of intervention of these actors in these procedures and the possibilities of enhancing their participation in the WTO.

Le risque de capture est peu étudié en dehors du contexte de la régulation économique dans lequel il a été théorisé. Bien que la doctrine américaine ait montré que ce risque est inhérent à tout processus normatif, les études juridiques sur la question demeurent rares, même si le risque de capture est parfois mentionné au détour d’une phrase ou d’une note de bas de page. La présente étude a pour ambition de mieux cerner les risques de capture pouvant affecter la fabrique du droit du commerce international au sein de la CNUDCI et d’UNIDROIT. L’étude vise non seulement à identifier ces risques de capture, mais surtout à en proposer un encadrement juridique à même de maîtriser la double dynamique observable au sein de la CNUDCI et d’UNIDROIT, entre d’une part la participation des opérateurs du commerce international dans leurs activités normatives – un aspect essentiel conditionnant la qualité et l’acceptabilité commerciale de leurs normes juridiques –, et d’autre part la prévention des risques de capture, un phénomène nuisible en raison du détournement du processus normatif qu’il entraîne au profit de certains opérateurs économiques. / Apart in the field of economic regulation where it emerged, the notion of capture has not been the subject of much analysis, particularly in law. The present study builds on the theory of regulation that coined the concept of capture and proposes to analyse the risks of capture affecting the making of transnational commercial law within UNCITRAL and UNIDROIT. The study aims not only to identify these risks of capture but also to provide a legal framework to promote the participation of economic actors in these law-making processes – a key feature to ensure the quality and commercial acceptability of their norms – , while preventing the occurrence of captures, a noxious situation where lawmakers are left without autonomy to conduct their normative functions.

This study examines a case of cooperation between banks, commerce, police and the municipality of Skövde, which in a project has the target to reduce the use of cash by 15 % in the city during 2011. The purpose of this study is to increase the understanding of the importance of cooperation in which different actors come together to reach a common goal, such as speed or interfere with an ongoing change, while they must meet their own interests. In this study the case of cooperation has been studied by using a qualitative approach. The methods used in this study are participant observation and a group interview as well as personal interviews. The theories underlying the study revolve around the concepts of collaboration between organizations with similar interests, changes in society, conflict and resistance to change.

Currently there is a controversial debate about that we must reduce our impact on the global warming; therefore both the Government and the local authorities have invested heavily in developing renewable energy in Sweden. The major development on the wind power market can be seen as a result of both the technological development and also on the decision that the Government took in 1996, which opened up the wind power market for private parties. This paper has aimed to examine the types of financial innovations that have arisen from the investments and financing of wind power on Gotland, and what these innovations can contribute to the future development of wind power. The problems that this thesis is based on is; what kind of financial innovations have occurred within investment and financing of wind power? How can these innovations contribute to the continued development of wind power on Gotland? The conclusion of this study shows that respondents and participants have defined a number of financial innovations that have emerged. Where some of the innovations only can be seen as incremental since they are based on continuous improvements, while others can be seen as radical as they are completely new for the context in which they operate. The study has also shown that Gotland has a great potential to produce more renewable electricity, but the development is dependent on the new power lines being built, in order to export electricity to the mainland.

The shift to a human security perspective has put food security on the agenda in development cooperation. In this world private actors are increasing their presence and a larger amount of aid is channeled through these organizations. However, there are little studies made on private actors in development cooperation, especially NGOs. The purpose of this study is therefore to deal with the theoretical uncertainty of NGO assistance and develop existing theory in order to confirm or dismiss previous assumptions. Previous research stress that NGO-projects are adaptable i.e. ability to change and adjust to manage sudden challenges, such as conflict. To what extent are NGO-projects to be classified as having adaptable project structures, and how is that manifested in aid within the area of food security? An ideal type was set up to measure adaptability involving three indicators: flexible, responsive, and inclusive. The empirical material was collected through interviews with project staff and project reports. The projects showed higher levels of adaptability than expected, also when controlling for two other cases. An adaptable project is recognized by its decentralized decision-structure, flexible budget, quick response, and access to remote areas.

Stockholms län är en expansiv region vars befolkning har vuxit kraftigt de senaste årtiondena och kommer enligt prognoser att fortsätta växa under en överskådlig framtid. Inflyttningen har inneburit att en redan hög efterfrågan på hyresrätter har blivit ännu högre. Trots en hög efterfrågan så är utbudet på hyresrätter trögrörligt och har inte hunnit i kapp. Detta har resulterat i att det råder bostadsbrist i stort sett i hela regionen. Det pågår ständigt en debatt bland experter, politiker och aktörer på fastighetsmarknaden om vad som kan göras för att åtgärda bristen på hyresrätter i regionen. En orsak till det låga byggandet av hyresrätter är att privata aktörer oftast betraktar den som en olönsam investering jämfört med bostadsrätten. Detta har hämmat byggandet enligt flera experter. Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka vilka åtgärder som kan ge incitament till privata aktörer att öka byggandet av hyresrätter, med fokus på Stockholmsregionen. För att undersöka detta intervjuades flertalet privata aktörer på regionens hyresmarknad för att få deras syn på lönsamheten i att bygga hyresrätter, samt vad som skulle ge dem incitament att öka byggandet. Vi fann tre utmärkande svar:  Det saknas tillgång till planlagd mark. Detta på grund av att det saknas resurser hos kommunerna och att den kommunala planprocessen är ineffektiv.  Den skattemässiga obalansen mellan upplåtelseformerna bör reformeras för att skapa balans i beskattningen.  En översyn av hyressättningsprincipen för att dels göra den mindre reglerad, dels för att öka säkerheten i framtida intäkter. Ovanstående lösningar är troligen effektiva och kan stimulera byggandet av fler hyresrätter men problemet, bristen på bostäder överlag, behöver ses över i sin helhet. En huvuddel av alla bostäder i Sverige utgörs av det befintliga beståndet. En ökad rörlighet bland det befintliga beståndet samt förbättrad infrastruktur skulle bidra till en mera fungerande marknad. Detta skulle leda till en högre investeringsvilja och att andelen hyresrätter skulle öka. Ökas rörligheten i det äldre beståndet möjliggör rimligen detta att ekonomiskt svagare grupper kan erhålla en äldre lägenhet med lägre hyra, medan ekonomiskt starkare kan erhålla en lägenhet i nyproduktion. / The Stockholm region is an expanding region with a growing population, which will continue to grow for a foreseeable future according to various predictions. The region’s rapid growth has increased an already large demand for rental housing. Despite a high demand, the slow-moving supply of rental housing has not caught up which has resulted in a region-wide housing crisis. There is an ongoing debate in the Stockholm region amongst experts, politicians and interest groups on the Swedish real estate market regarding what measures can be taken to solve the lack of rental housing. According to many experts, an underlying problem of the low level of construction is that private actors often consider rental housing an unprofitable investment compared to condominiums. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate what measures would give private actors incentives to increase their level of construction of rental housing, especially in the Stockholm region. Therefore, private actors on the region’s rental market were interviewed about what measures would give them incentives to increase construction of rental housing. Also, their view on the profitability of constructing rental housing in general was explored. Three measures that possibly can increase profitability were mentioned multiple times:  There is a need of more land allocation agreements. This is due to that the Swedish municipalities, the governing bodies of land usage in Sweden, lack resources and have an often slow process of distributing land for the construction of housing.  The unbalanced taxation system between rental housing and condominiums needs to be revised. The different forms of tenure need to be equally taxed.  Improvements to the current rent control, to make the system less regulated and to secure future incomes. The measures mentioned above may prove efficient in stimulating construction, although the problem needs to be studied in its entirety. A majority of Sweden’s housing consists of the current stock. An increased movement of tenants within the current stock and improved and expanded infrastructure may improve the rental market of the Stockholm region. This would make investments in rental housing more attractive and would increase the rate of production. An increased movement of tenants in the current stock will enable several income classes to obtain affordable accommodation, whilst more affluent groups occupy newly built housing

This study aims to analyze if the assessment of the European Court of Human Rights and Committee Against Torture in cases concerning women alleging violation of the principle of non-refoulement takes gender into consideration. Therefore, this study compares four cases from the Court and the other four cases from the Committee with feminist legal theory analysis. The method chosen for this study is a comparative legal method and textual analysis to investigate the research problem. The findings of this study are that the Committee's evaluation is more in line with the intersectionality perspective than the Court's. Further, the Court showed stereotypes and gender discrimination with their assessments. Although the Committee is also lacking in considering gender as far as the observed cases the Committee is more advanced with the intersectionality lens. The Court frequently depends on the "male or social network," which is another distinction between the two monitoring organizations. Because the Court does not mention "male network" to European women alleging domestic violence, this contributes to the already discriminations refugee and asylum seeker women experience. The thesis concludes that women seeking asylum or refugee cases experience the most discrimination before the Court, though occasionally before the Committee as well. The refugee law still has a long way to go before it can assist women who claim that private actors have abused them.

Kommunerna har det yttersta ansvaret för att det finns tillräckligt med antal skolplatser inom den enskilda kommunen. En kommun som äger mark och har ett behov av fler förskoleplatser kan genom en markanvisning hantera frågan om överlåtande av bebyggelsen och driften till privat aktör och också samtidigt säkerställa att kommunens krav på service upprätthålls av den privata aktören. Uppsatsen syftar till att undersöka hur kraven på kommunal förskoleservice kan säkerställas utifrån att kommunen tillämpar markanvisning för friliggande förskolor som uppförs och bedrivs av privata aktörer. För detta studeras val av markanvisningsmetod, krav som bör ställas på den privata aktören samt lämpliga utvärderingskriterier att tillämpa vid val av byggherre. Metoden är uppdelad i tre olika studier - litteraturstudie, enkätstudie och intervjustudie. I syfte att stärka resultatet har triangulering tillämpats där kvalitativ och kvantitativ metod kombinerats.  Enkäten besvarades av 104 kommuner och intervjustudien hölls med kommunerna: Helsingborg, Härryda, Trelleborg och Växjö. Resultatet av studien visar på att det inte finns någon universalmetod för markanvisning av friliggande förskolor. Resultatet visar även att i dessa sammanhang ställer kommunerna olika krav på byggherrarna och vid val av byggherre tillämpas olika utvärderingskriterier som viktas olika mot varandra. Studien har dock gett förslag på att vid tilldelning av mark för friliggande förskolor bör kommunerna, om möjligheten finns, tillämpa anbud med jämförelseförfarande eller markanvisningstävling. Vidare har studien gett förslag på några grundläggande krav som alltid bör ställas i dessa sammanhang och även fyra utvärderingskriterier. Vid viktning bör genomförbarheten och verksamheten utgöra de två viktigaste kriterierna och att pris bör tillämpas med försiktighet i dessa sammanhang. För att säkerställa och minska risken för att kommunen i framtiden behöver överta driften ska det utformas tydliga avtalskrav som realiserar kraven som ställts på byggherren och som säkerställer genomförbarheten samt en långsiktigt privat drift. / The municipalities have the ultimate responsibility for ensuring that there is a sufficient number of places at schools within the individual municipality. A municipality that owns land and has a need for more preschool places can, through a land allocation, handle the issue by transferring the buildings and operation to a private operator. By doing so they can at the same time ensure that the municipality's service requirements are maintained by the private operator. This thesis aims to investigate how the requirements for municipal preschool services can be ensured on the basis that the municipality applies land guidelines for detached preschools erected and run by private actors. For this the following was studied: choice of land allocation method, requirements that should be placed on the private operator and appropriate evaluation criteria to apply when selecting a builder. The method is divided into three different studies - literature, questionnaire, and interview study. In order to strengthen the result, triangulation has been applied where qualitative and quantitative methods are combined. The questionnaire was answered by 104 municipalities and the interview study was held with the municipalities: Helsingborg, Härryda, Trelleborg, and Växjö. The results of the study revealed that there is no universal method for land allocation for detached preschools. The result also shows that in these contexts the municipalities have different expectations on the builders and when selecting a builder different evaluation criterion are applied, which are weighted differently against each other. However, the study has suggested that when allocating land for detached preschools, the municipalities should, if possible, apply tenders with a comparative presentation or a ground instruction competition. Furthermore, the study has suggested some basic requirements that should always be set in these contexts and also four evaluation criteria. In weighting, feasibility and operations should be the two most important criteria, and that price should be applied with caution in these contexts. In order to ensure and reduce the risk that the municipality will have to take over operations in the future, clear contract requirements must be drawn up that realize the requirements that have been set by the developer and that ensure feasibility and long-term private operation.