Les plantes sont ancrées au sol pendant la majorité de leur cycle de vie et doivent donc constamment adapter leur croissance et leur métabolisme aux stress abiotiques. Ainsi, la subsistance des plantes dépend de leur capacité à réguler rapidement l’expression des gènes afin d’adapter leur physiologie à l’environnement. L’expression d’un gène peut être contrôlé à plusieurs niveaux; transcriptionnel, post-transcriptionnel, traductionnel et post-traductionnel.De nombreux processus cellulaires vitaux tels que la réplication de l’ADN, la transcription, la synthèse protéique, et la dégradation des protéines, sont régulés par les signaux environnementaux. Des études chez la levure, la drosophile et les animaux ont montré que la protéine kinase TOR (Target Of Rapamycin) est impliquée dans le contrôle de la croissance cellulaire et de la prolifération en réponse à différents signaux tels que les nutriments, les acides aminés, les hormones et les facteurs de croissance. Chez Arabidopsis thaliana, TOR est nécessaire au développement de l’embryon et de l’endosperme. De plus, des modifications du niveau de protéine AtTOR affectent la croissance végétative et la reproduction.Le principal objectif de cette thèse est de caractériser les mécanismes qui contrôlent l’expression de AtTOR en déterminant les éléments de régulation situés sur le la région 5’ non traduite (5′UTR) de l’ARNm de AtTOR, puis de manipuler ces éléments de régulation afin d étudier leur rôle. Nous avons choisi de nous focaliser sur la région 5′UTR de AtTOR, et sur une microORF (uORF) située en amont de l’ORF principale de AtTOR. Il s’agit de la première tentative d’étude de la régulation de l’expression de TOR par ces éléments chez les eucaryotes.Trois constructions chimériques ont été réalisées pour cette étude et transformée transitoirement est de manière stable dans des plantes. La première construction (contrôle positif) incluse le promoteur de AtTOR, la région 5′UTR, le premier intron et le début du premier exon fusionné au gène rapporteur GUS. La seconde construction (microORF mutée) est présente une mutation du codon start de la microORF (ATG changé en TTG). Enfin, la troisième construction (5′UTR délétée) contient la même séquence que le contrôle positif mais sans la région 5′UTR. Ces constructions ont également été placée sous le contrôle du promoteur 35S au lieu du promoteur de AtTOR afin d’étudier un lien éventuel entre la 5′UTR et la microRF et le promoteur de AtTORNos résultats indiquent une régulation généralement négative exercée par la 5′UTR, et dans une moindre mesure par la microORF, sur l’expression de AtTOR. Cette régulation semble avoir lieu au niveau transcriptionnel ou au niveau de la stabilité de l’ARNm, mais pas au niveau de la traduction. En effet, les modifications du niveau de transcrit GUS sont suivie d’un changement équivalent de l’activité GUS. De plus, nous avons observé que l’auxine et le sucrose ont un effet positif sur l’expression de AtTOR. Dans le cas de l’auxine, cet effet semble lié à la présence de la région 5′UTR de AtTOR.D’autres études de la fonction de la région 5’UTR et de la microORF de AtTOR, ainsi que de leur relation avec d’autres éléments régulateurs localisée dans le promoteur de AtTOR, permettront de mieux comprendre comment ces éléments régulateurs contrôlent finement l’expression de AtTOR. / Land plants are anchored in one place for most of their life cycle and therefore must constantly adapt their growth and metabolism to abiotic stresses. Thus, plants’ subsistence depends on their ability to regulate rapidly gene expression in order to adapt their physiology to their environment. The expression of a gene can be controlled at many levels, including transcription, post-transcription, translation, and post-translation.Many vital cellular processes like DNA replication, transcription, protein synthesis, and protein degradation are regulated by environmental signals. Studies in yeast, Drosophila, and mammals showed that the target of rapamycin (TOR) protein is involved in control of cell growth and cell proliferation in response to different types of environmental signals such as nutrients, amino acids, hormones, and growth factors. In Arabidopsis thaliana, TOR is necessary for both embryo and endosperm development in, and changes of TOR protein level affect both vegetative and reproductive growth.The main purpose from this thesis is to highlight the mechanisms that control AtTOR expression at the post-transcriptional level through determination of the possible regulatory elements within the 5′ untranslated region (5′UTR) or the first intron of AtTOR mRNA itself, and through manipulation of these regulatory elements to study their precise role. We have chosen to focus on the small upstream open reading frame (uORF) as well as the 5′UTR region. This is the first attempt to study the regulation of TOR kinase expression in eukaryotes through these small uORF or the sequence of 5′ untranslated region (5′UTR).To achieve this purpose, three chimeric constructs have been established and transformed in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves and Arabidopsis thaliana plants. The first construct (the positive control) contains the AtTOR promoter, the 5′UTR, the first intron, and the beginning of the second exon fused to the GUS reporter gene. The second construct (mutated uORF) have the same sequence as the positive control construct except the start codon of uORF was changed from ATG to TTG. The third construct (deleted 5′UTR) have the same sequence as the positive control construct without the 5′UTR. These constructs have also been placed under the activity of CaMV 35S promoter instead of AtTOR promoter to investigate whether there is a link between the 5′UTR/or uORF and the promoter.Our work show an overall negative regulation exerted by the 5′UTR and, to a lesser extent, by the uORF on AtTOR gene regulation. This regulation is likely at the level of transcription or mRNA stability, since the changes in GUS transcript level was followed by the same changes in GUS activity. In addition we found that external inducers like auxin or sucrose exert a positive effect on AtTOR expression. This effect appears somehow linked to the presence of the 5′UTR of AtTOR mRNA.Greater insight into the molecular mechanisms of AtTOR 5′UTR/or uORF function and its relationship with other regulatory elements located in AtTOR promoter will be required to understand how these regulatory elements work either individually or in combination to achieve the fine and accurate regulation of their gene expression.

Le statut du personnel de la SNCF est régulièrement remis en cause depuis les années 1980. De nombreuses idées reçues, parfois très caricaturales, sont véhiculées à son sujet. Cette thèse de doctorat propose de déconstruire la mythologie qui entoure le statut du personnel des cheminots français des grands réseaux, puis de la SNCF, à travers l’étude de sa genèse, de son histoire, de la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle à la veille de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, ainsi que de sa mémoire. Cette thèse entend saisir la réalité mouvante des règles déterminant les conditions d’emploi, de travail et de retraite des cheminots, mettre en lumière les logiques processuelles et contextuelles qui caractérisent leur évolution sur le long terme, et interroger, au prisme de l’identité de la corporation, les discours et représentations qui leur sont attachés. Ce travail de thèse a été réalisé à partir des archives des compagnies et de la SNCF, des archives des administrations publiques et policières, des archives syndicales et parlementaires, de la presse, de traités techniques et juridiques, d’œuvres littéraires et de témoignages personnels (mémoires, discours, journaux politiques). / The SNCF Staff Regulations was questioned since the 1980’s. Popular misconceptions, sometimes grotesques, are still widespread. Through the study of its history, from the second half of the 19th century to the eve of the World War II, and its remembrance, this PhD thesis proposes to deconstruct the railway workers Staff Regulations mythology. This study aims at understanding the moving reality of the rules concerning employment, working conditions and retirement, and highlighting the processual and contextual logics that define its long-term evolution. Discourses about and representations of these rules must be revisited through the prism of the railway workers’ identity too. This PhD thesis is based on historical records from railway companies and SNCF, public authorities, unions, legal and technical manuals, literature, press and personal testimonies.

À partir de l’analyse des relations interentreprises dans le secteur du bâtiment, cette thèse interroge les difficultés de coopération et de création de règles communes sur un chantier de construction.Ce travail porte sur un sujet important, au regard à la fois du poids économique de l’objet de recherche empirique et des enjeux contemporains du travail en réseau, du recours à la sous-traitance et à des travailleurs détachés. Cette thèse propose une lecture originale de la sécurité au travail, en déplaçant le regard de la conception duale de la sécurité réglée et gérée vers un processus de sécurisation des actions. Son principal apport est de montrer ce qu’est « agir en sécurité » : il ne s’agit pas seulement d’appliquer des procédures affichées ou de respecter des règles mises en action mais surtout de régulation entre une pluralité de sources normatives.Ce travail s’appuie sur la théorie de la régulation sociale. Initialement conçus pour analyser des organisations de type taylorienne, ces outils conceptuels se sont révélés pertinents pour étudier des organisations en réseau de sous-traitance. Ainsi, nous avons décrit les relations de travail, en particulier la sous-traitance et la cotraitance et les effets de ces relations sur la coopération au travail en matière de sécurité. L’objectif est de proposer une réflexion sur les transformations de l’organisation des régulations de la sécurité du et au travail et sur la place de la sous-traitance dans ce processus. Autrement dit, c’est uneréflexion sur la forme des liens sociaux qui participent à la sécurité, à l’action collective en situation de travail en réseaux. / This thesis addresses the difficulties of cooperation and the elaboration of common rules between multiple firms that work on a same construction yard.This work focuses on an important topic, considering both the economic approach brought by of the empirical research subject and the contemporary issues with network firms, outsourcing organizations and posted workers.This thesis proposes an original approach of workplace safety, by shifting the focus from the dual concept of regulated and managed security to a process of safety control actions.The main contribution of this study concerns the process of "acting safe": which is not only about applying and creating procedures or rules but also about control between a set of normative bodies. This thesis relies on the theory of social regulation and control. This theory was originally built to analyze Taylorist-type organizations, and it has proved its effectiveness in studyingnetworked outsourcing organizations. These conceptual tools have proved to be relevant for studying network firms and outsourcing organizations.Thus, we have described the work coordination and cooperation, between firms that are related with subcontracting and co-contracting commitment. The target is to evaluate safety.The purpose is to propose a system thinking approach of safety control at work within a set outsourcing company.In other words, this study aims to describe forms of social links that contribute to safety at a workplace.

Bakgrunden till denna studien tar avstamp i de ständigt ökade regleringarna inom den finansiella sektorn, särskilt inom bank och försäkring. Denna sektor har upplevt tyngre regleringar sedan Enron skandalen 2001 vilket kulminerade till Sarbanes-Oxley Act 2002, som fortfarande är aktivt reglerad idag. Under 2018 tillkom två nya regleringar som trädde i kraft för den svenska finansiella sektorn, nämligen “Markets in Financial Instruments Directive II” (MiFID II) och Lagen (2018:1219) om Försäkringsdistribution (LFD). Dessa tillkomna regleringar kan ha en inverkan på chefer och deras ledarskap på verksamheter inom bank och försäkring. Syftet med denna studie är att illustrera potentiella indikatorer om, och hur, nya finansiella regleringar kan inverka på chefers ledarskap. Studien har därav ämnat sig till att använda transaktionell respektive transformativ ledarskapsteori för att tolka och analysera tio chefers upplevelser av de ökade regleringarna. Den empiriska data som har samlats in från en organisation, verksam inom bank- och försäkring, indikerar på att regleringarna kan ha påtagliga effekter på chefers ledarskap. Cheferna återgav ett ökat bruk av transaktionellt ledarskap genom direkt kontroll. Detta då de behövde säkerställa om medarbetarna efterlevde de nya regleringarna. Några av cheferna uttryckte framträdande förändringar i ledarskapet efter att de nya regleringarna trätt i kraft. Detta resulterade i ett mer kontrollerande och transaktionellt ledarskap, då den större delen av tiden spenderades på kontroller och lämnade således mindre utrymme för det transformativa ledarskapet. Vid införandet av en administrativ roll avlastades stora delar av det administrativa arbetet för cheferna, så de återigen kunde återvända till deras tidigare utövade ledarskap. Studien konkluderar att det finns indikationer på att regleringar kan påverka chefers ledarskap men kan till stor del bero på hur verksamheten väljer att delegera det administrativa arbetet. Det finns även indikationer som visar att nya regleringar kan gynna vissa ledarskapsstilar. Vid ökade kontroller indikerar det, som ovannämnt, ett ökat bruk av direkt kontroll, ett typiskt drag hos det transaktionella ledarskapet. Å andra sidan indikerar avskaffandet av kontingentbelöningar inom försäljning, ett ökat användande av ett transformativt ledarskap. / The background of this study originates in the expanding regulation of the financial sector, specifically within the banking and insurance business. This sector has experienced heavier regulations since the Enron scandal in 2001 which culminated in the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, and is still being actively regulated today. During 2018, two new regulatory frameworks were added to the Swedish financial sector, namely Markets in Financial Instruments Directive II (MiFID II) and the Insurance Distribution Directive (IDD). This, and any other new addition to the legal framework, may affect managers and their leadership within an organization which operates within the banking and insurance business. The purpose of this study is to illustrate how new financial regulations may affect managers’ leadership. The study has therefore employed the use of transactional and transformative leadership theory to analyze ten managers’ personal experiences of the increased regulatory framework. The empirical data gathered from an organization currently operational within the banking and insurance sector suggest that regulations may have tangible effects on the managers employed there. The managers reported an increased use of direct control, whereby they would examine if their subordinates were compliant with the new regulations or not. Some of the managers expressed significant alterations in their leadership when the new frameworks were first introduced which resulted in a more controlling and transactional leadership, as most of their time was spent assuring employee compliance. However, upon the implementation of an administrative role that relieved the managers of most of the compliance control, they could once more return to their favored leadership style. The study concludes that there are indications of the regulations affecting managers’ leadership but that it’s heavily dependent on how an organization chooses to delegate the compliance work. There are also certain indications that the nature of new regulations could favor certain leadership styles. An increase in compliance work also suggests an increase in the use of direct control, a common trait in transactional leadership. On the other hand, the abolishment of contingent rewards for sales indicates an increase use of transformational leadership.

Inovação verde incorpora melhorias tecnológicas que economizam energia, previne a poluição, permite a reciclagem de resíduos e pode incluir design de produto verde e a gestão ambiental das empresas. Este tema tem sido estudado por diversos autores sob vários aspectos, mas os resultados sobre os antecedentes da Inovação Verde ainda apresentam divergências na literatura. Diante disso e com base na teoria institucional, este estudo pretende analisar como o grau de severidade das regulamentações ambientais e a competitividade internacional dos países afetam os esforços em Inovação Verde das empresas do setor industrial dos Países Desenvolvidos (PD) e dos Países em Desenvolvimento (PED). A amostra da pesquisa foi composta por 186 empresas industriais, que constam na lista das 500 maiores empresas por valor de mercado da Financial Times no ano de 2015, sendo 114 de PD e 72 PED. Foram utilizados no estudo como variáveis de análise: o índice de competitividade global do World Economic Forum (WEF), os indicadores de regulamentação ambiental da OECD, as informações sobre certificação ISO 14001 nos relatórios de sustentabilidade das empresas baseados nas diretrizes de GRI, as medidas de tamanho da empresa, o grau de internacionalização e investimentos ambientais coletados da base Thomsom One, bem como as informações sobre Pacto Global e sobre DJSI. Como metodologia, este trabalho caracterizou-se por ser um estudo descritivo, com abordagem quantitativa, uma vez que foram levantados dados e utilizou-se da Modelagem de Equações Estruturais para análise da relação entre as variáveis. Os principais resultados do trabalho foram: (a) O rigor das regulamentações ambientais dos países afetam o esforço de inovação verde das empresas industriais dos PD e PED somente no construto IV2, composto pelas variáveis Pacto Global e investimentos ambientais; (b) A competitividade dos países não apresentou influência positiva no esforço de inovação verde das empresas e demonstrou um efeito negativo e significante estatisticamente no construto IV2; (c) o tamanho das empresas só apresentou um impacto positivo e significante estatisticamente sobre o construto IV2; (d) o grau de internacionalização das empresas não apresentou um efeito significativo sobre nenhum dos construtos de inovação verde; (e) a relação entre as regulamentações ambientais e a inovação verde é moderada positivamente pelo tamanho das empresas e moderada negativamente pelo seu grau de internacionalização; (f) a relação entre a competitividade dos países e a inovação verde é moderada negativamente pelo tamanho das empresas e moderada positivamente pelo seu grau de internacionalização. Pode-se concluir com os resultados desta tese que, dentre os antecedentes da inovação verde analisados, confirmou-se que somente as regulamentações ambientais e o tamanho das empresas exerce um efeito positivo sobre os esforços de inovação verde das empresa, mas isso dependendo de como a inovação verde está sendo medida. / Green innovation incorporates technological improvements that save energy, prevent pollution, allow waste recycling and can include green product design and environmental management of companies. This theme has been studied by several authors in different aspects, but the results of the background of Green Innovation still present divergences in the literature. Given this, and based on institutional theory, this study aims to analyze how the severity of environmental regulations and the international competitiveness of countries affect the efforts of Green Innovation in companies of the industrial sector in Developed Countries (PD) and Developing Countries (PED). The survey sample consisted of 186 industrial companies, which are listed in the Financial Times\' top 500 companies by market value in 2015, of which 114 were PD and 72 were PED. The variables used in the study were based on: the Global Competitiveness Index of the World Economic Forum (WEF), OECD environmental regulation indicators, ISO 14001 certification information in the company sustainability reports based on GRI guidelines, company size measures, degree of internationalization and environmental investments collected from Thomsom One base, Global Compact and DJSI information. As a methodology, this work was characterized as a descriptive study, with a quantitative approach, since data were collected and the Structural Equation Modeling (SME) was used to analyze the relationship between variables. The main results of the study were: (a) The rigor of the environmental regulations of the countries affect the green innovation effort of the industrial companies of the PD and PED only in construct IV2, composed of the variables Global Compact and environmental investments; (b) The competitiveness of the countries did not have a positive influence on the green innovation effort of the companies, but showed a statistically negative and significant effect on the IV2 construct; (c) the size of the companies, only had a positive and statistically significant impact on the IV2 construct; (d) the degree of internationalization of companies has not had a significant effect on any of the green innovation constructs; (e) the relationship between environmental regulations and green innovation is moderated positively by the size of firms, and moderated negatively by their degree of internationalization; (f) the relationship between the countries\' competitiveness and green innovation is negatively moderated by the size of firms and moderated positively by their degree of internationalization. It can be concluded from the results of this thesis that, among the antecedents of the green innovation analyzed, it was confirmed that only environmental regulations and the size of companies have a positive effect on the companies\' green innovation efforts, but this depending on how green innovation is being measured.

Estudo de cunho comparativo-descritivo e analítico dos sistemas de saúde mental de Brasil e de Argentina através da consideração de alguns dos desdobramentos e construções da instalação do paradigma antimanicomial nos países em questão, colocando-os em conversação com as normativas emanadas das organizações internacionais, que vêm apoiando a mencionada mudança de paradigma desde 1975 até a atualidade. Nesse sentido, o principal referente será a Declaração de Caracas de 14 de novembro de 1990, produzida na Conferencia Regional para a Reestruturação da Assistência Psiquiátrica na America Latina assinada por ambos os países, que assumem assim o compromisso de reestruturação dos seus sistemas de saúde mental de acordo as recomendações emitidas. A análise se realiza através de três momentos: o estudo das legislações emitidas, o estudo das praticas existentes no campo e um estudo de caso sobre duas experiências pioneiras de instalação da lógica antimanicomial que foram efetuadas simultaneamente, uma em cada país. Toma como referência teórica os pressupostos do Movimento Institucionalista e os trabalhos de Michel Foucault, além do extenso ideário que sustentou a construção do paradigma antimanicomial: Basaglia, Tosquelles, Oury, Castel, e outros / A comparative, descriptive and analytical study of mental health systems in Brazil and Argentina, considering some of the developments and structures of implementation of the anti-asylum trend in the countries analysed and studying these factors in conjunction with regulations issued by international organisations in favour of this change in trend, from 1975 until the present-time. In this regard, the principal reference used in this study is the Caracas Declaration of 14 November 1990, created at the Regional Conference for the Restructuring of Psychiatric Care in Latin America, and signed by both countries, each therein committing to the restructuring of their respective mental health systems in accordance with the recommendations stipulated in the document. The analysis has three strands: a study of the published legislation, a study of existing practice in the Field, and a case study of two pioneering experiments of implementation of anti-asylum logic carried out simultaneously in each of the two countries. The study uses as theoretical reference the hypotheses of the Institutionalization Movement and the work of Michel Foucault, as well as the extensive ideology supporting the development of the anti-asylum trend: Basaglia, Tosquelles, Oury, Castel, and others

Esta tese tem como principal objetivo medir o desempenho das lâmpadas fluorescentes compactas em regime de uso intermitente instaladas em residências. Utiliza a Norma NBR 14539 e a PORTARIA 489/2010 como referência, para a comparação dos valores obtidos nas medições de campo com as medições do laboratório. A metodologia aplicada tem a finalidade de medir o desempenho em um ambiente real e muito mais agressivo que o laboratório. Foram instaladas 95lâmpadas de três marcas diferentes e dividida em três grupos, previamente as lâmpadas foram sazonadas ou \"envelhecidas\" por 100 horas e posteriormente instaladas nas residências. Neste estágio, as medições de campo foram realizadas durante dezoito meses em quatro oportunidades, (a primeira como referência), posteriormente foram retiradas e levadas novamente ao laboratório para medir a depreciação do fluxo luminoso. As variáveis medidas foram: Fluxo luminoso, iluminância, tensão, temperatura, umidade relativa e quantidade de chaveamento para o acendimento das lâmpadas. Para ter uma visão mais ampla, os resultados, foram comparados à norma brasileira com as normas internacionais em relação aos requisitos de desempenho das lâmpadas fluorescentes compactas. Também foi feito um questionário com os consumidores que participaram desta pesquisa, para verificar o conhecimento ou a \"cultura energética\" relacionada com a forma de uso da iluminação, manutenção dos circuitos, idade, gênero, situação laboral, classe social, consumo, escolha de lâmpadas na hora da compra, uso da iluminação natural, utilização de tintas claras no interior das residências. Todo procedimento de medições foi realizado no Laboratório de Fotometria do Instituto de Energia e Ambiente-IEE da Universidade de São Paulo/USP. / This thesis aims to verify the performance of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) that are installed in residences in intermittent use regime. It uses NBR 14539 and Ordinance 489/2010 as a reference for comparing the values measured in the field in the laboratory measurements. The methodology used to verify the performance in a real environment is more aggressive than the laboratory\'s. 95 lamps of three different brands were installed, which were divided into three groups, The lamps were previously seasoned or \"aged\" for 100 hours and then installed in residences. At this stage, the field measurements were conducted for eighteen months, four times until reaching 2,000 hours of use. Later, they were removed and taken back to the laboratory to check the depreciation. Measured variables were: Iluminância, voltage, temperature, relative humidity and the amount of switching to lighting the lamps. To consolidate, Brazilian standards were compared to international standards in order to verify if there are differences or coinciding points. A questionnaire was also filled in by consumers who participated in this research to verify the knowledge or \"energy culture\" related to the proper use of lighting, maintenance of circuits, age, gender, employment status, social class, consumption, choice of lamps at the time of purchase, use of natural lighting, use of clear paint inside the residences. Finally, it is worth mentioning that the entire measurement procedure was performed in the photometry laboratory of the Institute of Energy and Environment-IEE, University of São Paulo/USP.

The National Board of Housing, Building and Planning have been conducting housing needs assessments since 1995 (Boverket 2015). The latest assessment was conducted in 2015 and showed that 71,000 homes will need to be built annually by 2020. To be able to contribute to building more homes, Willhem AB is carrying out a project called ”Så bygger vi för alla”. As part of the work, this thesis will examine the building rules and how they can contribute to innovation. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate which rules, laws and norms we have to keep to in Sweden regarding housing construction. The aim of the work is to investigate whether the regulatory framework can create creativity amongst the players in the market. This thesis is limited to examining which laws, government policies and eventual municipal requirements that exist in Sweden. Therefore, industry rules, such as the AMA, and contracting regulations, such as AB and ABT, will not be taken into consideration. The survey is also limited to newly built multifamily houses only. Finally, the reference objects that are studied in the thesis will be in Sweden and be limited to being either construction-technical or plan-based innovative and have been recently executed. This thesis is based on the existing regulations and theories from previous studies. The data collected for this survey will be studied from a qualitative point of view. The survey aims to investigate a number of reference objects more thoroughly and conduct interviews with key people involved in the project, which means a qualitative approach is best suited. In 1987, Sweden received a new building legislation according to Örnhall (2017), which has resulted in a transition from specification requirements to functional requirements in order to increase the liberty in housing production. However, according to Örnhall (2017 the new legislation has contributed to a wider picture of the regulatory framework. The National Board of Housing, Building and Planning is the authority that has the overall responsibility for community planning, urban development, construction and housing (Nordstrand 2008). The most important laws and government policies that the social planning sector primarily have to obey are the Planning and Building Act (PBL), the Planning and Building Regulation (PBF) as well as and the Swedish National Board of Housing, Building and Planning (BBR) (Örnhall, Swedish Construction Service 2017a). The Planning and Building Act (SFS 2010:900), PBL, regulates the planning for land and water whilst the responsibility for maintaining the regulations lies with the municipalities. The purpose of PBL is to promote social development for long-term, equal, social and environmental sustainable development for today’s society and future generations (SFS 2010: 900). When creating new homes, special consideration should be given to long term use of the home (Boverket 2016). At the interview stage, six areas emerged that were considered to be particularly problematic or interesting for the development of innovative and cheap housing. These areas were; accessibility, municipal requirements, rules, advice and interpretations, energy, innovation and development, and the ability to build for everyone. I perceived the accessibility aspect as very complex. Several interviewees argue that the accessibility requirements entail an increased cost for new builds, in one case it was even expressed that today’s availability requirements means the housing becomes less accessible to a larger group. The rules for creating an inclusive society also emerged at the interview stage while another recurring opinion is the renewal of the legislation. Several interviewees stated that they consider the regulations to be outdated and need to be updated according to today’s society. Based on this, I found The National Board of Housing, Building and Planning requirements contradictory whilst providing support for innovation, many requirements inhibits the development of housing. Therefore, extensive research should be carried out on how people in Sweden want to live today; thereafter the regulations can be updated according to today’s needs. In one way or another, all reference objects have been at the forefront when it comes to housing development. A common factor for the various reference objects is that a major problem was identified in all projects, which led to a product or solution being developed. They show that there is not one solution to the problem, but that different solutions can be found to achieve the same goal: better housing for more people.

In early Victorian England, the new philosophy of social democracy challenged the bourgeois creed of laissezfaire. An important aspect of this struggle, which historians have neglected, is the campaign (1831-1853) for a shorter and regulated factory workday. This study concludes that during the Parliamentary debates on factory legislation, Britain's leaders, regardless of party affiliation, decided that the Government, indeed, had an obligation to assist the victims of social and economic injustice, a decision which meant the end of laissez-faire.

Tidigare forskning visar på att småbolagens existens har en stor betydelse. Småbolag bidrar inte bara till att generera fler jobb, de bidrar också till den ekonomiska tillväxten. Dock kräver deras existens och fortsatta tillväxt mer kapital, de behöver därmed ha tillgång till krediter. Tidigare forskning visar på att småbolag har svårigheter att erhålla bankkrediter jämfört med större bolag. På grund av Basel-regleringarna och de införda kapitalkraven har bankerna blivit mer försiktiga och är inte villiga att ta allt för stora risker. Detta har visat sig påverka småbolagen negativt gällande deras tillgång till bankkrediter, vilka de har ett stort behov av för sin överlevnad och fortsatta tillväxt. Denna studie syftar till att identifiera och belysa de problem som finns vid kreditgivningen gentemot småbolag, även besvara forskningsfrågan: Vilka faktorer är avgörande vid kreditgivning gentemot småbolag?Studien är gjord i Sverige på Högskolan i Borås, uppsatsen är därför skriven på svenska. I studien används kvalitativ forskningsmetod med semi-strukturerade intervjuer. Efter att ha läst och betraktat tidigare forskning och teorier om utlåning gentemot småbolag har därför sju företagsrådgivare intervjuats. Företagsrådgivarna representerar de fyra största bankerna i Sverige, vilka är Nordea, Handelsbanken, Swedbank och SEB. Syftet med intervjuerna var för att få mer insikt i utlåningsprocessen gentemot småbolagen. För att fullborda studien analyserades informationen från tidigare forskning, teorier och informationen från intervjuerna vidare.Studien visar på att fenomenet Förtroende är avgörande när det gäller bankernas utlåning gentemot småbolag. I studien identifieras det att småbolagen bidrar till kreditrisker för bankerna på grund av att de saknar kvalitativa ekonomiska dokument, pantsäkerheter och en befintlig historik. Detta i sin tur gör att det blir svårt för bankerna att få tillräckligt med information vid bedömningen gällande bolagets kreditvärdighet. På grund av svårigheterna att få tillgång till information om småbolagen så spelar företagaren bakom bolaget en viktig roll för att skapa ett förtroende i bankrelationen. Under förutsättning att bolagets budget och årsredovisning ser presentabel ut, så kan företagarens intryck och hur relationen till banken slutligen blir vara avgörande. Denna studie visar också på att bankernas fokus på information om småbolaget skiljer sig åt från bank till bank, dock är förtroendet alltid det som slutligen avgör. Bankerna måste tro på kunden och se att bolaget är kreditvärdigt innan de ger ut krediter. Detta innebär att det allra viktigaste för ett småbolag för att erhålla krediter från bankerna är att vinna bankens förtroende.Att identifiera och belysa de problem som finns vid kreditgivning gentemot småbolagen och framföra de avgörande faktorerna vid kreditgivningen gentemot småbolagen avser att generera kunskap och uppmärksamma problemen. Detta i sin tur syftar till att få både banker och småbolag att bli medvetna och mer motiverade att möta och motarbeta de problem och brister som finns vid kreditgivningen. Studien belyser problematiken gällande att bankerna inte använder en generell ram vid kreditgivningen och lyfter upp betydelsen av förtroende mellan småbolag och storbanker. / Program: Civilekonomprogrammet