The aim of my thesis is to analyze the process of the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election and identify the factors that had the biggest influence on the election results. The paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter describes the rules for electing the U.S. president, the second chapter focuses on issues and the third on other factors that decided the election. My thesis is thus a study of how the U.S. president was elected in 2008 and of the issues currently most discussed in the American society.

o presente estudo teve por objetivo investigar a influência de duas diferentes resiliências de materiais de amortecimento e de dois tipos de cabedais de calçados esportivos na cinemática e cinética de membro inferior e na percepção do conforto durante a corrida. Também investigamos as possíveis relações entre o conforto percebido e as variáveis biomecânicas capturadas. Para tal, foram avaliados 42 corredores recreacionais adultos, com no mínimo de um ano de experiência em corrida de rua, com mínimo de dois treinos regulares por semana, e com volume de treino semanal superior a 5 km. Foram avaliadas quatro condições de calçados aleatorizadas para cada corredor (material de amortecimento de baixa resiliência e cabedal estruturado, material amortecimento de alta resiliência e cabedal estruturado, material de amortecimento de baixa resiliência e cabedal minimalista, e material amortecimento de alta resiliência e cabedal minimalista). Após avaliação antropométrica e postural do complexo tornozelo/pé, os corredores realizaram corridas em uma pista de 25 metros em laboratório. A avaliação biomecânica foi realizada usando seis câmeras infravermelhas (VICON T-40, Oxford, UK) a 300 Hz, sincronizadas a duas plataformas de força (AMTI BP-600600, Watertown, USA) para aquisição da força reação do solo a 1200 Hz, e palmilhas instrumentas com sensores capacitivos (Pedar X System, Novel, Munique, Alemanha) a 100 Hz. A percepção subjetiva de conforto em cada condição foi avaliada por meio de um questionário de conforto para calçados. As comparações estatísticas entre os calçados foram verificadas por meio de análises de variância (ANOVAs) para medidas repetidas, e correlação de Pearson para verificar as relações entre o conforto e as variáveis biomecânicas (a=O,05). Realizou-se uma análise de Machine Learning para capturar variáveis da série temporal completa das curvas de cinemática e cinética que discriminassem os calçados estudados. Construímos uma matriz de entrada nas dimensões 1080 x 1242 para a análise por Machine learning. Os resultados demonstram que há uma interação entre as condições de cabedal e material de amortecimento que faz com que as comparações de resiliência se comportem de forma distinta para cabedais minimalistas e para cabedais estruturados. Contrariamente ao esperado, para os calçados de cabedal estruturado, as resiliências não foram diferentes entre si, e para o cabedal minimalista, os corredores apresentaram impactos mais altos com o material de baixa resiliência. A estrutura de cabedal influenciou a absorção de impacto, onde o cabedal minimalista apresentou impactos mais altos que o cabedal estruturado. Sobre o conforto, a condição de cabedal minimalista e material de baixa resiliência obteve as piores notas em cinco de nove quesitos do questionário. Em alguns quesitos ele foi o pior avaliado dentre todas as demais condições (como no amortecimento do calcanhar e no conforto geral). O cabedal minimalista recebeu pior avaliação que os cabedais estrutura dos no quesito controle médio-lateral da avaliação de conforto. Observou-se que a correlação entre as variáveis biomecânicas e as variáveis de conforto considerando todos os calçados conjuntamente, apesar de apresentarem valores significativos para algumas associações, foram sempre correlações fracas, abaixo de 30%. Ao se analisar cada condição de calçado isoladamente, em algumas se observou correlação moderada entre as variáveis biomecânicas e o conforto (r >31%, p < O,05), o que não se verificou em outras condições de calçados. Cada calçado gera condições particulares que favorecem ou não a associação entre conforto e repostas biomecânicas. Sobre a análise de Machine Learning, a metodologia foi capaz de diferenciar com sucesso os dois materiais de resiliência diferentes utilizando 200 (16%) variáveis biomecânicas disponíveis com uma precisão de 84,8%, e os dois cabedais com uma precisão de 93,9%. A discriminação da resiliência da entressola resultou em níveis de acurácia mais baixos do que a discriminação dos cabedais de calçados. Em ambos os casos, no entanto, as forças de reação do solo estavam entre as 25 variáveis mais relevantes. As 200 variáveis mais relevantes que discriminaram as duas resiliências estavam distribuídas em curtas janelas de tempo, ao longo de toda série temporal da cinemática e força. Estas janelas corresponderam a padrões individuais de respostas biomecânicas, ou a um grupo de indivíduos que apresentaram as mesmas respostas biomecânicas frente aos diferentes materiais de amortecimento. Como conclusão, destacamos que o cabedal tem maior influência que o material de amortecimento quando se trata da biomecânica da corrida e conforto subjetivo. Nos cabedais estruturados, a resiliência do material da entressola não diferenciou a biomecânica da corrida. A resiliência do material de amortecimento causa efeitos importantes sobre o impacto do calcanhar (menores loading rate, frequência mediana, pico de pressão em retropé) durante a corrida em cabedais com pouca estrutura. Alterações biomecânicas devido à resiliência do material de amortecimento parecem ser dependentes do sujeito, enquanto as relacionadas à estrutura de cabedal parecem ser mais sujeito independente. Sugere-se ter cautela ao afirmar que um calçado mais confortável também gerará respostas positivas biomecânicas, pois as associações entre essas variáveis analisando todos os calçados conjuntamente foram sempre correlações fracas. As correlações moderadas e particulares de cada condição de calçado com determinadas variáveis de conforto nos levam a concluir que os materiais aplicados nos calçado favorecem mais ou menos a percepção de determinada característica de conforto / The aim of this study was to investiga te the influence of two cushioning materiais with different resiliencies and two types of uppers of sportive shoes on kinematics and kinetics of lower limb and on the subjective perception of comfort during running. We also investigated the potential relationship between the perceived comfort and biomechanical variables analyzed. For this purpose, 42 adult recreational runners were evaluated. lhey had at least one year of experience on running, minimum of two regular running workouts per week, and weekly training volume above 5 km. We evaluated four randomized shoes conditions for each athlete (Iow resilience cushioning material and structured upper, high resilience cushioning material and structured upper, low resilience cushioning material and minimalist upper, and high resilience cushioning material and minimalist upper). After anthropometric and postura I assessment of the foot/ankle complex, runners held trials on a 25 meters long indoor track. Biomechanical data were collected by six infrared cameras (VICON l-40, Oxford, UK) at 300 Hz, synchronized with two force platforms (AMll BP-600600, Watertown, USA) at 1200Hz, and in- shoe plantar pressure insoles (Pedar X System, Nove\" Munich, Germany) at 100 Hz. Subjective perception of comfort in each shoe condition was assessed by a questionnaire of footwear comfort. lhe statistical comparisons between the shoes were verified by analysis of variance (ANOVA) for repeated measures and Pearson\'s correlation to verify the relationship between comfort and biomechanical variables (a=0.05). We conducted a Machine Learning analysis to capture variables from the complete kinematics and kinetics time series, which would be able to discriminate the studied footwear. We build an input matrix in the dimensions of 1080 x 1242 for Machine Learning analysis. There was an interaction between the upper structure and the resilience of cushioning material that made comparisons between resiliencies to behave differently for minimal uppers and for structured uppers. Contrary to expectation, for structured uppers, resiliencies were not different from each other, and for the minimal upper, runners had higher impact with the low-resilience material. lhe upper structure influenced the absorption of impact, in which the minimalist upper presented higher impacts than the structured upper. About comfort, minimalist upper condition and low resilience materiais had the worst grades for five of nine questions of the questionnaire. In some questions it was the worst of ali conditions (such as for the comfort in the heel cushioning and overall comfort). lhe minimalist upper received worse assessment than the structured uppers in the question about the mediolateral control. It was observed that the correlation between biomechanical variables and comfort, considering ali shoe conditions together, despite having significant values for some correlations were weak correlations (r <30%, p <0.05). When each shoe condition is analyzed alone, some footwear conditions had moderate correlation between comfort and biomechanical variables (r >31%, p <0.05L although the same behavior was not observed in other shoe conditions. Each shoe represents a specific condition that favor or not the association between comfort and biomechanical responses. On Machine Learning analysis, the method was able to successfully distinguish between the two different resiliencies using 200 (16%) of available biomechanical variables with an accuracy of 84.8%, and between the 2 uppers with an accuracy of 93.9 %. Discrimination of the resiliencies resulted in lower levels of accuracy than the discrimination of shoe uppers. In both cases, however, the ground reaction forces were among the 25 most important features. The 200 most relevant features which discriminate the two resiliencies were distribuited in short time windows along the kinematic and force time series. These windows corresponded to individual biomechanical patterns, or patterns of a group of people with similar behavior. In conclusion, we emphasize that the upper has greater influence than the resilience of cushioning material when it is about biomechanics of running and subjective comfort of the shoes. In structured uppers, the biomechanics did not differenciate the resiliencies of the midsole materiais. The resilience of the cushioning material has important effects on the heel impact (Iower loading rate, median frequency, peak pressure in rearfoot) during running on shoes with little structure on the upper. Biomechanical changes due to the resilience of the cushioning material seems to be dependent on the subject, while related to the upper structure seems to be more independent of the subject. It is suggested to be cautious to affirm that more comfortable footwear will also let to positive biomechanical responses. That is because the correlations between these variables when analyzing ali the footwear together were always weak. Moderate and positive correlations of each shoe condition with some of comfort variables lead us to conclude that the materiais applied on each footwear favors more or less the comfort perception

A prática deliberada de corrida promove uma melhora no padrão de movimento do corredor, porém ainda é incerto quais são as contribuições da experiência de corrida na mecânica do corpo. No curso de dar luz a essas contribuições nos deparamos com uma questão básica anterior: o que é um corredor experiente? Apesar de existir uma regra dos \"dez anos\" de prática para se tornar especialista, não há uma definição clara do que é ser experiente em corrida e, quantificar o nível da experiência é uma tarefa desafiadora. Uma alternativa para essa tarefa envolve a criação de um sistema de apoio à decisão para classificação do fenômeno utilizando um sistemas linguísticos fuzzy. O uso desses sistemas é indicado para tratar de fenômenos com características de incerteza de identificação. Os objetivos do estudo foram: (i) desenvolver um sistema de apoio à decisão para a classificação da experiência do corredor de longa distância não federado por meio de um modelo fuzzy; e (ii) desenvolver uma prova que avalie a capacidade do corredor em controlar o ritmo durante a corrida, como forma de qualificar a experiência nessa modalidade. Para o primeiro objetivo, dois subsistemas tipo Mamdani foram desenvolvidos a partir do julgamento de três técnicos especialistas em corrida. No primeiro subsistema as variáveis linguísticas de frequência e volume de treino foram combinadas tendo como saída conjuntos que definiram a qualidade da prática. O segundo subsistema combinou à saída do 1º sistema, o número de provas e o tempo de prática e determinou o nível de experiência em corrida, em cinco conjuntos de saída. Os resultados do modelo foram altamente consistentes com a avaliação dos três especialistas em corrida que o criaram (r > O,88, p < O,OOl) e altamente consistentes com a avaliação de cinco outros especialistas (r > O,86, p < O,OOl). Para o segundo objetivo, como os especialistas descreveram de forma contundente que o controle de ritmo durante a corrida é uma característica presente e marcante em corredores experientes, desenvolvemos uma prova para testar essa capacidade do corredor e para que esta ferramenta pudesse ser utilizada como padrão de comparação com os resultados da avaliação do modelo fuzzy. Duas provas de 1000 m e 3200 m foram desenvolvidas. A primeira foi aplicada em 100 e a segunda em 42 corredores de longa distância não federados, onde tinham um tempo alvo para completar a prova baseado no tempo da última prova de 5km ou 10km que tivessem realizado. Os tempos parciais foram mensurados a cada 200m para identificar o ritmo. Foi possível identificar algumas distribuições de ritmo típicas ao longo dos testes, todavia, elas não se relacionaram com o nível de experiência dos corredores, o mesmo ocorreu entre o grau de acurácia em reproduzir os tempos solicitados e o nível de experiência. No geral, pode-se dizer que a classificação de experiência baseada num sistema fuzzy foi consistente como se pode depreender do grau de correlação do modelo com os julgamentos dos especialistas. A ausência de relações significantes entre o modelo e o controle de ritmo pode ser atribuída ao segundo, já que não há consenso na literatura sobre qual seria um teste de ritmo objetivo, fidedigno e válido. O controle de ritmo por si já está imbuído de um grau de incerteza (várias combinações temporais levam ao mesmo resultado final) o que corrobora com a utilização da lógica fuzzy para o entendimento do fenômeno e demanda estudos específicos. É importante destacar que a aplicação do modelo permitiu identificar que um alto nível de experiência não está balizado pela \"regra dos 10 anos de prática\" o que provavelmente tem a ver com o tipo de atividade estudada aqui, depende de uma habilidade mais motora e menos cognitiva. Isso indica que na corrida há outros fatores balizadores, como a frequência e o volume de treinos e a participação em provas. O sistema fuzzy de apoio a decisão para classificação do nível de experiência do praticante de corrida de fundo mostrou-se capaz de identificar e classificar a experiência em corrida com confiabilidade / The deliberate practice of running enhances the runner\'s movement pattern, but it is yet uncertain what are the contributions of running experience to body mechanics. In the course to unravel such contributions one is faced with a more basic question: what is an experienced runner? In spite of the well known rule of \"ten years of practice\" to become an expertise, there is no clear definition of what it is to be an experienced runner, hence to quantify the experience levei is a challenging task. One alternative to this task entails the development a system to support decision-making to classify the phenomenon using Fuzzy Linguistic Systems. The use of such systems is indicated to deal with phenomena that have an uncertain characterization because its identification allows different configurations. The goals of the study were: (i) to develop a fuzzy decision support system for classifying the running experience of non- elite long distance runners; (ii) to develop a running test to assess the runner\'s ability to pace control during running and that might be associated to experience levels. For the first goal, two Mamdani subsystems were developed from the judgements of three expert running coaches. In the first subsystem, the linguistic variables of training frequency and volume were combined and the output defined the quality of running practice. The second subsystem determined the running experience levei from the five output sets of the first subsystem combined with the number of races and practice time. The results of the model were highly consistent with the evaluation done by the three expert running coaches who created it (r > O,88, p < O,OOl) as well as with that of other five expert running coaches (r > O,86, p < O,OOl). For the second goal, considering that the running experts were quite confident that pace control is a marked ability of experienced runners, a running test was developed to assess the runner\'s ability to exert such control and that might be a reference for comparison with the experience levei defined by the fuzzy system based classification. Two running tests, 1000 and 3200 meters races, were developed and applied in a sample of 142 non-elite long distance runners in which they had a goal time to complete the test based on their personal last time in 10km or 5km races. Splits times we-re taken at each 200 m to identify the pace. Although it was possible to identify some typical pace distributions in the tests, they were not correlated to experience levels and also to the accuracy with which the goal time were attained. Overall, the classification of running experience based in a fuzzy system was consistent as one considers the degree of correlation between the model and the judgments made by the expert coaches. The lack of correlation with the pace control might be due to the fact that the test might not be appropriated. There is no consensus in the literature about what would be an objective, reliable and valid running pace control testo Pace control is in itself an uncertain process (many temporal combinations can yield the same final result) which agrees with the use fuzzy logic to unravel it, hence it warrants a set of particular investigations. It is important to remark that with the application of the model it was possible to verify that a high running experience levei is not constrained by \"the ten years of practice\" rule, which is likely to related to the activity studied here. This indicates that in running there are other constraints for experience such as training frequency, volume and participation in races. The fuzzy decision support system to classify the experience levei of the non-elite long distance runner proved to be capable to identify and classify the running experience with reliability

Objectives: The aim of the study was to evaluate how lower limbs injuries are related to footstrike pattern in 800 m women runners aged 16 - 22 in the Czech Republic and around the world. Methods: Due to the current epidemiological situation, the original field investigation of 48 runners was not possible to complete. Literature research on the topic and the series of ten case studies were performed instead. The research was performed in following databases: Medline, ScienceDirect, SPORTDiscus and Bibliographia medica Čechoslovaca. Results showed seven studies that met inclusion criteria. After that footstrike pattern was evaluated and compared with injury history in 10 women runners in 800 meters, who took part in the Czech Republic championship. Results: Two studies out of seven confirmed a higher incidence of injuries in RFS than in FFS, 4/7 did not show a significant difference, 1/7 did not evaluate the higher incidence in one or the other type of the footstrike. Three studies out of seven confirmed the relationship between RFS and knee injuries. Furthermore, two of them showed relationship between RFS and hip pain. 2/7 did not confirm any relationship between footstrike pattern and specific injury and 2/7 did not evaluated this relationship at all. Based on the series of ten case studies, it...

The purpose of this dissertation is to shed light on the physical demands of women’s soccer at the NCAA division I college level. Though research does exists describing the physical demands of women’s soccer, the vast majority seeks to explain the physical demands association with the professional and international level. This dissertation sought to: 1) examine the physical demands of NCAA division I women’s soccer and 2) observe changes in physical demands of two NCAA division I women’s soccer players over a four-year career using a case study approach. Study 1 examined the physical demands of twenty-three athlete from a single NCAA division I team using Global Positioning System devices during four competitive seasons. Total distance, high-speed running distance and sprinting distances were analyzed for comparison against previously established physical demands associated with higher standards of play as well as for positional differences. Differences were found regarding total distance covered between standards of play. However, more pronounced differences were identified between high-speed running activities and standard of play, with higher standards requiring greater demands for high-intensity activities. Additionally, attacking players were demonstrated to cover greater total distance and high-intensity distance compared to the other position groups. Study 2 was a case study, observing seasonal variation in match physical demands of two high-level collegiate players during their 4-four college careers. Each player was tracked using GPS devices to record total distance, high-speed running distance and sprint distance. Seasonal variation in physical demands were found for each player, however, no consistent trends were found for both players. Interestingly, lower physical demands were identified during each player’s final season of play in comparison to all previous seasons, possibly demonstrating an increased tactical awareness resulting in improved playing efficiency. Nevertheless, future examination including additional data such as fitness testing results, tactical formations, and technical skill assessment are warranted. With little research available detailing the physical demands of women’s soccer at the division I collegiate level, our findings will provide further insight into the physical demands required for division I female players. By understanding the specific physical demands associated with competitive matches, as well as various positions, coaches and sports scientists can be equipped with objective data unique to women’s college soccer at the NCAA division I level. Our findings will empower practitioners with valuable information necessary to guide more informed decision making with regard to training structure and prescription, to enhance performance and minimize injury risks.

Locomotion is one of the most important qualities of man and has always been associated with survival, foraging ans subsistence. During the course of evolution, men and women developed some form of gender specialization which resulted in different level of mobility between the sexes. Throughout history, the types of subsistence have changed and the degree of sedentism has increased. However, despite all the changes in subsistence, gender specialization and bone robusticity sexual dimorphism in the robusticity of the lower limb bones remained surprisingly stable. Is it possible that women load lower limb bones differenty than men (e.i. due to different body proportions)? The aim of this work is to determine wheter there is sexual dimorphism between the sexes of the recent living population in the cross-sectional properties of the tibia and in the load on the tibia during running. In this work we used images of the tibia from magnetic resonance imaging and kinematic and kinetic data during the run of 20 probands. By using musculoskeletal modeling we estimated the bending moment acting at 50 % of the tibial length as well as the angle of action of this moment. After adjusting for size, no significant difference was found in the results of cross-sectional geometry of the bone in any of the monitored...

This thesis deals with the design of a sporttester, which is a device capable of calculating the cadence of the taken steps and monitoring the impact force of foot on the ground while running. Exposure to long-term strong impacts while running can cause serious fatigue fractures of the hip, calf bone or the foot area. The purpose of the sporttester is to monitor and signal strong impacts to the runner, thus helping to prevent fatigue fractures. The aforementioned features are evaluated based on the change in acceleration measured by the accelerometer. The calculated values of step cadence, running speed and impact force are sent via Bluetooth Low Energy to a compatible mobile application.

Syftet med arbetet var att undersöka hur ett nyproducerat batterihybridfartyg av PSV-typ (plattform supply vessel) bör operera för att uppnå en så energieffektiv drift som möjligt utan att äventyra säkerhet eller redundanskrav. Att framföra ett fartyg så energieffektivt som möjligt är något som är av hög prioritet till sjöss, dels ur ett ekonomiskt perspektiv men även ur miljösynpunkt, då sjöfartsbranschen ständigt arbetar för en minskad miljöpåverkan. Även nyproducerade fartyg, byggda med modern teknik som ger goda förutsättningar för en energieffektiv drift ställer stora krav på att det tydligt framgår hur fartyget ska framföras för att nyttja fartygets fulla potential och uppnå optimal drift. För att ta fram procedurer över hur fartygen bör operera har loggade och teoretiska data från fartyget Coey Viking sammanställts, och presenteras i samråd med Viking Supply Ships. Resultatet innefattar generatorkombinationers specifika bränsleförbrukning, lågtrycks-dual-fuel-motorers generella miljöpåverkan med avseende på metanslip och fartygets loggade effektförbrukning till kaj. Resultatet visade att hög generatorlast resulterade i optimal specifik bränsleförbrukningen, att låga generatorlaster genererade stort metanslip samt att en förändrad elkraftstyrning tillsammans med fartygets energilagring möjliggör en förbättrad drift till kaj med en minskad miljöpåverkan. Arbetet öppnar upp för vidare forskning inom optimal peak-shaving-effekt, hur energilagringens storlek påverkar driftsmöjligheter och hur peak-shaving till kaj på ett stabilt sätt reglertekniskt bör styras. / The purpose of this undertaking was to investigate a new built battery-hybrid-vessel of PSV-type (platform supply vessel) and its operational ability to achieve the most energy efficient operation without jeopardizing safety or redundancy. The energy efficient operation of a vessel is of great priority in the maritime industry, not only because of economical profit but also based on environmental perspective, since the maritime industry is constantly aiming towards a decreased environmental impact. Newly built vessels containing modern technology opens up great opportunity in achieving energy efficient operation, though it sets high standard regarding correct operation of the vessel to use its full potential and achieve optimal running. To be able to present procedures regarding the vessel’s operation, logged and theoretical data from the vessel Coey Viking has been compiled and is presented in consultation with Viking Supply Ships. The results refered to different generator combination’s specific fuel consumption, the general environmental impact of low pressure dual fuel engines with respect to methane slip and the vessel’s logged power consumption in port.  The result indicated that a high generator load resulted in optimal specific fuel consumption, while low generator loads resulted in poor specific fuel consumption together with an increase in methane slip. The result also showed that the vessel’s energy storage together with a change in the PMS-system (Power Management System) would enable an improved power supply in port with shore connection. The paper raises questions to be answered in further research regarding optimal peak-shaving effect, what impact the size of the energy storage would have on operational capability and how peak shaving in port with shore connection appropriately should be regulated.

Interactive technology in the area of fitness and wellbeing has gained increasing interest in the HCI community with the emphasize to design technologies and tools in the aim to encourage people and make them more engaged in physical activity. However, there is little investigation in which precise factors that contribute to user motivation and self-efficacy.Physical activity outdoors together with tracking devices enables the users to view and interpret the results from their practice based on movements. The data can then be visualized on geographic maps, which are powerful tools for presentation. Online platforms on the web give users the opportunity to share their own results together with other practitioners’ results. This creates a shared network of practitioners in a world-wide online setting, based on geolocated information visualized on geographic maps. The study starts with the hypothesis that the space of interaction on a map-based social network platform can be further developed in the aim to increase practitioners’ motivation in physical activity. Two approaches are identified in the study: comparative and supportive. The study examines how they can be integrated in the space of a map-based social network platform in the aim to motivate practitioners. The study results in different kinds of features and investigate in practitioners’ experience of them.

No description available.