The purpose of this study is to investigate how opinion-forming journalists in Västerbotten experience threats and hate and if these things vary depending on if the affected journalist is a woman or a man. This study also aims to examine how these threats and the hate affect the opinion-forming journalists in both an emotional and a professional way. To strengthen the analysis this study is based on four theoretical frameworks. Strömbäcks theories support analyzes about self-censorship and the opinion-forming journalists' importance for democracy. Butler's theories about hate-speech describe how hate-speech can be expressed and affect the receiver. Lazarus and Folkman contribute with a psychological perspective with coping strategies, how they cope with the threats and hate. The theories from Hanitzsch presents various perspectives about the journalistic cultures and supports analysis connected to the journalistic role. The method used to gather the material was qualitative interviews with six opinion-forming journalists in Västerbotten. For the analysis meaning condensation was used. The result presents a total of ten themes, sorted in three chapters based on the issues. The result and analysis indicates that threats and hate is common for opinion-forming journalists in Västerbotten to be exposed by. At the same time, a majority of the participating opinion-forming journalists state that they feel spared. Furthermore, it is very common for the opinion-forming journalist who receives threats or hate to be affected emotionally, mainly with negative emotions such as fear, sadness and discomfort. The biggest professional effect that threats and hate can lead to is self-censorship. Finally, this study can show that there are differences in threats and hate between female and male opinion-forming journalists in Västerbotten. The biggest difference is that women receive more threats and hatred based on sexism and containing sexual allusions.

El tema de investigación es la autocensura dentro de la libertad de expresión en las plataformas de Twitter. La elección del tema fue dada porque supone un panorama constantemente ignorado por los usuarios dentro de las plataformas digitales. Las redes sociales se convirtieron en el megáfono de las personas que desean expresarse libremente. Lamentablemente, con el pasar de los años ese discurso fue desvaneciéndose para convertirse en un dialogo en el que se busca aceptación antes que la expresión. Los resultados de la investigación conducirán a la mejora de la compresión del comportamiento humano ante tal problemática, pues se adentrará en el pensamiento psicológico del usuario como también en una comprensión global del contexto en la cual se encuentra. Se cree que el público interesado será tanto los usuarios de plataformas digitales como también profesionales en comunicación, ya que abre una puerta a la compresión de sucesos que se desarrollan en la mencionada red social tercera persona. / The research topic is self-censorship within the freedom of expression on Twitter platforms. The choice of the topic was given because it supposes a panorama constantly ignored by users within digital platforms. Social networks became the megaphone for people who want to express themselves freely. Unfortunately, with the passing of the years, that discourse faded to become a dialogue in which acceptance is sought rather than expression. The results of the research will lead to the improvement of the understanding of human behavior, since it will delve into the psychological thinking of the user as well as a global understanding of the context in which it is found. It’s believed that the interested public will be both users of digital platforms as well as communication professionals, since it opens a door to the understanding of events that take place in the aforementioned third-person social network. / Trabajo de investigación

Dans la Mise en scène de la vie quotidienne (1956), Erving Goffman fait ressortir que, dans la sphère « hors ligne », l’individu se produit quotidiennement sur différentes « scènes » identitaires, en fonction de différents « public ». En fonction des contextes, l’acteur choisit de se présenter sous un « masque social » approprié, selon qu’il se trouve, par exemple, avec ses parents, avec ses amis, avec son « crush » ou face à son employeur. Or, sur Instagram, l’utilisateur doit composer avec le mélange de ses différents « publics », sur une unique « scène » identitaire : son compte principal. Les individus issus de la génération Z en tant que « digital natives » sont très actifs dans la construction de leur identité numérique, si bien qu’ils ont parfois du mal à distinguer les limites entre la sphère réelle et la sphère virtuelle. D’autre part, ces jeunes adultes se trouvent à une étape charnière de leur vie, pris entre plusieurs préoccupations : trouver l’amour, assurer leur avenir professionnel, satisfaire leurs parents, marquer leur appartenance à un groupe de pairs… L’objectif de ce mémoire consiste à mieux comprendre la façon dont les individus issus de la génération Z organisent leur présentation de soi sur Instagram. Pour ce faire, douze utilisateurs issus de la génération Z, actifs sur le réseau social Instagram ont été interrogés. Les résultats de la recherche montrent que, en réaction aux différentes attentes qui pèsent sur eux, les jeunes utilisateurs développent sur leur compte principal une présentation de soi marquée par la recherche de neutralité, un profil Instagram « vitrine », une « façade » aseptisée qui satisfait les différents publics présents parmi leurs abonnés. Ce compte principal constitue la face « émergée » de l’identité sur Instagram. Mais, comme le suggère la métaphore tirée de l’iceberg, à travers d’autres fonctionnalités, sur Instagram, les utilisateurs développent, en parallèle de leurs contenus « grand public » et à l’abri de certains regards inquisiteurs, une identité « underground », qui correspond la face « immergée » de leur identité sur Instagram. Par le biais de leurs stories « amis proches » d’abord, puis, dans un détournement d’usage, via un compte secondaire (dit « Finstagram »), les jeunes utilisateurs revêtent un « masque social » bien différent du premier. La validation de leur identité n’étant plus une priorité sur cette scène « cachée », dans les « coulisses » de leur présentation de soi, les utilisateurs ne craignent plus d’exprimer leurs opinions, de se présenter sous le prisme de l’auto-dérision ou même d’exposer des pratiques socialement dévalorisées. Ce mémoire constitue une première étude qualitative de l’organisation de la présentation de soi par les utilisateurs issus de la génération Z sur Instagram. / In The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1956), Erving Goffman highlights that in the “offline” sphere, the individual performs daily on different identity “stages” according to different “audiences.” The actor selects the appropriate “social mask” based on the context and the presence of certain “audience” members such as his parents, friends, “crush,” or employer. However, on Instagram, the user must perform for a mixture of different “audiences” on a single identity “stage”: his main account. As “digital natives,” individuals from Generation Z are highly active in constructing their online personas, to the point that they may sometimes have difficulty distinguishing the boundaries between real and online worlds. On the other hand, these young adults are at a pivotal stage of their lives where they are caught between various concerns: finding love, ensuring their professional future, meeting parental expectations, establishing their sense of belonging in a group of peers… The objective of this thesis is to better understand the way individuals from Generation Z organize their self-presentation on Instagram. To pursue this goal, we interviewed twelve users from Generation Z who are active on the Instagram. The results of this research show that in response to the various expectations weighing on them, young users developed a self-presentation on their primary Instagram account that emphasized neutrality. This account serves as a “showcase” profile and a sanitized “façade” that intends to satisfy the various audience members among their followers. It constitutes the “emerged” facet of identity on Instagram. However, as the iceberg metaphor suggests, users utilized other features on Instagram to develop an “underground” or “submerged” identity visible only to a select few alongside their “mainstream” content. First, through “close friends” stories, then, in a reconfiguration of Instagram features, through a secondary account (known as a “finstagram”), young users adopted a “social mask” very different from the one on their primary account. Since the validation of their identity is no longer a priority on this “hidden” stage, in the “backstage” of their self-presentation, users are no longer afraid to express their opinions, present themselves through the lens of self-deprecation or even expose socially stigmatized activity. This thesis constitutes a first qualitative study about the organization of self-presentation by users from Generation Z on Instagram.

Violence against women journalists is increasing all over the world, especially online, and previous research shows that journalists develop different strategies to avoid harassment. Costa Rica is the country in Latin America that has the highest level of press freedom but that does not mean that harassment is non-existing. However, there is little research to be found on how the work of women journalists in Costa Rica is affected by harassment and which strategies they use to avoid it. Through nine semi- structured qualitative interviews with women journalists in Costa Rica, this Minor Field Study examines how the work of women journalists in Costa Rica is affected by harassment, threats, digital attacks, and physical violence. The interviews reveal that harassment against female journalists in Costa Rica occur today, and during the journalists’ careers they have experienced online violence, physical violence, sexual harassment and pressure. The harassment comes from bosses, colleagues, sources, trolls, the audience, and the government. The journalists develop strategies like self- censorship, changing occupations and avoiding being alone with bosses and sources. Some also block people and comments on social media, confront the harasser or try to ignore the harassment. Harassment does also affect the journalists’ feelings in a negative way and many women state that the harassment affects their journalistic work. The reasons for why they think they are exposed are because they are women, the macho culture in Costa Rica, and because of the president. The topics and the news media outlet also have an impact. Most of the participants feel like harassment is worse today than what it has been, even though there are more laws today. The results are discussed in relation to the theories Gender in the newsroom, The chilling effect, Affective Events Theory and Intersectionality. To summarize, harassment against women journalists in Costa Rica do affect their daily journalistic work.

Introduction: In 2022 the conflict between Russia and Ukraine led Facebook to encourage a rise of hate speech and use of violence against Russian people. This led the Russian government to take measures and ban the use of western social media such as Facebook and Instagram in Russia and proclaim the Meta organization as an extremist organization. The ban caused various reactions which consequently led to a divergence in responses and opinions. Furthermore, the situation raises the question if the ban of western social media platforms is affecting Russian ICTs users' perception and political opinion. Aim: The aim of the study is to examine how the ban of western social media giants in Russia (Facebook, Instagram) affect Russian ICTs users’ attitude in the context of “critical citizen” or regime supporter. Also, the reasons why some Russians avoid western ICTs ban by using VPN and how some Russians experience ICTs censorship. A theoretical framework has been developed for the purpose to identify the different factors which might possibly lead to the emergence of “critical citizen” or pro-government citizen. Methodology: Semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect empirical data and fulfill the purpose of the thesis. Conclusion and contribution: The empirical data shows that the ban of Western ICTs (Facebook, Instagram) in Russia did not negatively affect ICTs users’ attitude toward Russian government nor encouraged an emergence of “critical citizen” rather in most cases raise an understanding and support of the ban even among those who still using Facebook and Instagram.  Findings show that VPN usage in most cases correlated with habits of preferences rather than a seeking of western political information. Furthermore, the user's perception on Facebook and Instagram censorship is more neutral/negative in context of general restriction and neutral/positive in context of Western influence resistance.

The subject of this master thesis is the current development of the Hong Kong's news media in the period of 2005-2010 which is scrutinized through the prism of recent political and social changes of the region. The main object of this master thesis is to create a descriptive analysis of Hong Kong's mass media in the abovementioned period. This master thesis splits into three parts. First part is theoretical and examines the key media theories dealing with the concept of media systems. Furthermore, it uses the media theories to identify the Hong Kong's media system and embed it into the appropriate theoretical context. The second part presents the historical development of Hong Kong's press system and names Hong Kong's main newspapers of the last century. Third part, the main part of this master thesis, scrutinizes the development of the Hong Kong's media system after the political transition from the British to the Chinese "rule". Here, the main attention is paid to the current newspapers, broadcast stations and to the new trends in the Hong Kong's media environment. Finally, this master thesis evaluates whether the political pressure from China affects the Hong Kong's freedom of press and whether local journalists use methods of the self-censorship.

The thesis titled Self-reflection Of Czech Sport Journalists Working Between 1980 And 1999 In Printed Media And The Influence Of Ideology On Their Role In Society focuses on a question of whether the work of writing sport journalists was influenced by the ruling ideology before 1989. The thesis is based on biographical interviews of five sport journalists, which were taken while using the help of oral history research method. The sport journalists bring their testimonies, memories, experiences and stories associated with the period of normalization, the Velvet Revolution and the post-revolutionary period. The biggest emphasis is placed on a degree of impact of the ruling ideology on the editorial process before 1989. Therefore the thesis touches themes of self-censorship, targeted campaigns, relationships of the journalists to the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia or to The National Security. The work brings views of still writing sport journalists, who evaluate their motivation to do the profession, their ongoing journalistic career and the role of sport journalists in society. This study is a contribution to oral-historical research on the period of normalization and to understanding the influence of ideology on the media activity before 1989. This thesis extends the knowledge of sports...

The thesis deals with self-censorship on the biggest online social network Facebook. The main purpose was to determine the reasons for using self-censorship on Facebook. Qualitative research was elaborated with usage of semi structured interview focused on virtual world of active Facebook users and on deeper examination of it. Theoretical part describes concepts and ideas related to the theme of the thesis. The methodological part describes in detail the qualitative research and it's requirements. The analytical part deals with the research itself, analysis of transcribed interviews and with the rules designed by researcher for safe use of Facebook by children. The researcher has decided to set the rules from the findings determined during the creation of the thesis. The self-censorship is the key to the safe behavior on Facebook. Every user of this social network has to learn how to distinguish, what could be placed there and what shouldn't.

Mon mémoire vise à définir, analyser, contextualiser et historiciser la censure à la Renaissance à travers l’exploration de diverses œuvres de Shakespeare, notamment les pièces souvent désignées sous le nom d’Henriad— Henry IV partie 1 et 2, Richard II— tout en portant une attention particulière sur Les Sonnets. Cette thèse s’intéresse à l’interpénétration des différentes institutions de censure, ainsi qu’aux différentes façons dont la censure peut se manifester ; à l’hétérogénéité des institutions, des divers agents, ainsi que des censeurs ; à la manière dont certains mécanismes se rejoignent, coopèrent ou divergent à d’autres moments. L’objectif principal est de démontrer que la censure va au-delà des paramètres de quelconque institution ou agent individuel, et qu’elle résulte de l’amalgame de chaque partie impliquée volontairement ou involontairement dans la prolifération de mesures répressives. Finalement, mon étude démontre que les pièces et Les Sonnets de Shakespeare ont été censurés de différentes manières, et cela, par différentes institutions, mais plus important encore, ce mémoire met en évidence que Shakespeare a mis en avant différents stratagèmes adaptables dans le but de contourner la censure de ses œuvres. / This thesis seeks to define, analyze, contextualize, and historicize censorship in the Renaissance through an exploration of Shakespeare’s Sonnets as well as the group of plays often referred to as the Henriad—1 Henry IV, 2 Henry IV, and Richard II. The overarching focus of this thesis is to demonstrate the in-betweenness of censorship—the different ways in which censorship is manifested; the institutions as well as the censors; how different censoring mechanisms merge at certain times, cooperate, or even disagree at others. The goal is to bring forth a clear understanding of the genealogical entity of censorship, to prove that censorship is bigger than any one institution, any one individual, that censorship is an amalgamation of every different susceptible censoring party working together mostly, and sometimes not—voluntarily or involuntarily—in their ever-changing ways of repression. Ultimately, my study of Shakespeare demonstrates that the plays and the sonnets were censored in different ways through different institutions, but more importantly, this paper highlights that Shakespeare had different adaptable ways of circumventing the censorship of his works.

Bibliografický záznam ANDREAS, Petr. Politika interpretace. Rétorické, diskursivní a textové hry v normalizační literární kritice. Univerzita Karlova, Filozofická fakulta, Ústav české literatury a komparatistiky, 2014. Vedoucí disertační práce: prof. Petr A. Bílek, CSc. Anotace Tématem této disertace je politika interpretace v normalizační literární kritice a publicistice (1968-1989). Práce kategorizuje a analyzuje diskursivní, rétorické a textové strategie, které používali literární kritici a publicisté (a jednotlivé profesní a názorové skupiny) publikující v oficiálním publikačním prostoru. Metodologicky vychází z konceptu politiky interpretace podle P. C. Hogana, rozvinutého o teorii jednání a teorii řečových aktů. V první, teoreticko-metodologické části (kapitoly II-IV) je představen a rozvíjen pojem politiky interpretace a analyzovány metodologické problémy interpretace literárněkritických a publicistických textů z normalizační éry. V druhé, analytické a interpretační části (kapitoly V-VII) jsou rozlišeny tři roviny politiky interpretace podle umístění ve struktuře kritického aktu a identifikovány kategorie rétorických, diskursivních a textových strategií. V třetí, závěrečné části (kapitola VIII) je zobecněno a syntetizováno poznání o podobě a fungování kritického aktu v normalizační éře. Annotation...