This thesis examines the topic of the position of women in rural development. This topic has become the focus of extensive international debate at theoretical and policy levels, but for historical reasons remains relatively undeveloped in South Africa. After reviewing a number of contemporary approaches, the thesis argues in favour of the "Gender and Development" approach, and applies this to a case study of the gender division of labour in a rural black community in South Africa. Chapter one reviews the variants of the "Women in Development" (WID) approaches, as well as the claims of "Global Feminism". It is argued that, although Global Feminism began as a critique of WID approaches, it is in fact similar in many respects to the contemporary "empowerment" focus within the WID tradition. Although useful, these approaches are not sufficiently explicit in their theorizing of gender relations in the context of development. Chapter 2 sets out the key elements of the "Gender and Development" approach, which emphasises the complexity of the issue of women's interests, and warns against assuming a commonality of interests amongst all women. Instead, the GAD approach demands a detailed investigation of socially constructed gender relations in specific communities, with a special focus on the gender division of labour. For GAD theorists such analysis is a requirement of development planning which seeks to advance the position of women. Chapter 3 spells out the methodological implications of the GAD approach, and develops a specific research design, influenced by GAD as well as feminist methodology, for the investigation of the gender-specific needs of women in Merino Walk, a rural black community. Chapter 4 presents a brief overview of the general context of rural women in Southern Africa, and a specific history of the Merino Walk community. Chapter 5 presents the results of the research. In the context of this thesis, the results are presented essentially as an illustration of the application of the GAD principles to a specific South African example. The conclusion draws out some of the issues which emerge from the research.

Thesis (DPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation aims to establish the reasons underlying possible gendered attrition trends in the South African medical profession between 1996 and 2005. Noting the international trend of the increasing feminisation of medical education and the profession, the dissertation illustrates that this is also a reality in our national context, and frames this phenomenon as being plagued by difficulties very similar to those encountered in other traditionally male-dominated fields. The particular relevance for further research and debate is illustrated through the noticed discrepancy between women’s representation in enrolment and graduation at medical schools in South Africa, and their representation in the profession itself. The decision to approach this investigation from a feministorganisational perspective was based on the fact that this would not only be a novel, but indeed also an appropriate, research approach to the study of gendered trends in medical education and the profession within the South African context. The research project thus sets out three main objectives relevant to this investigation. Objective 1 aims to establish the sex composition of the cohort of medical graduates that have not entered, or decided to exit, the medical profession. In terms of this objective, findings show an increasing rate of progression of men into the profession, accompanied by a decreasing rate of progression of women into the profession. Objective 2 attempts to establish the reasons behind sex trends in South African medical schools and in the profession. Thus, in an effort to comprehensively investigate the issues underlying attrition, I employ a mixed-methods approach to the primary data collection and analysis. Firstly, the findings show, through a quantitative analysis of the interview data, that this sample of women felt that both institutional and societal factors influenced a women doctor’s propensity to remain in the profession. Secondly, it is established that whether these respondents felt that they had appropriate role models in the profession was the most important factor in terms of their identification with, and propensity to stay in, the profession. Thirdly, it was also found that the respondents felt strongly that the culture of the medical profession impacts negatively on a woman doctor’s propensity to stay in the profession, but similar to the findings of other studies, this does not bring us closer to an understanding of what that culture constitutes. Thus, lastly, through a qualitative analysis of the interview data I find that the respondents clearly recognise the presence of a gendered substructure in medicine in the South African context, and identify some elements of this structure as most commonly linked to attrition. Objective 3, based on the outcomes of the previous objectives, aims to provide recommendations for the retention of medical doctors in general, and women doctors specifically, in the South African context. It concludes that flexibility1 in the medical profession is paramount to the retention of doctors, and women doctors specifically. This is a difficult challenge to overcome, as central values such as the importance of continuity of care in the medical profession would suggest that providing increased flexibility to medical doctors would impact negatively on patient care. However, it appears that there is increasing recognition amongst scholars, policy makers and medical practitioners themselves of the importance of acknowledging alternative work patterns. On the basis of the outcomes of my research, it is clear that the national gender attrition trends are a cause for concern in terms of resourcing the National Health System against the backdrop of a widely acknowledged shortage of doctors in South Africa and elsewhere. If women doctors do not progress effectively into the system, but form the majority of graduates, this is a tragic loss, as well as a waste of resources during training. This aspect also has policy implications, because it appears that the government, in trying to retain doctors, has increasingly turned to measures that are restrictive (compulsory community service, restrictions on foreign doctors), rather than focusing on ways in which to make doctors want to stay. The dissertation thus closes by suggesting two main areas within which these findings and recommendations would be employed most usefully: 1) medical schools/ training/education, and 2) the medical profession/culture. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie proefskrif het ten doel om die redes onderliggende aan geslagsverskille in die verlies van vroue uit die Suid-Afrikaanse mediese beroep tussen 1996 en 2005 vas te stel. Die internasionale tendens van die toenemende vervrouliking van mediese opleiding en die mediese beroep wys dat dit ook ‘n realiteit in die Suid-Afrikaanse nasionale konteks is. Hierdie verskynsel word veroorsaak deur probleme soortgelyk aan dié wat in ander, tradisioneel manlik gedomineerde beroepe ondervind word. Die spesifieke relevansie vir verdere navorsing en debat word geïllustreer deur die aangetoonde proporsionele verskil tussen vroue se inskrywing en graduering in mediese skole in Suid-Afrika, en hul verteenwoordiging in die beroep self. Die besluit om hierdie ondersoek uit ‘n feministies-organisatoriese perspektief te benader, is nie net omdat dit ‘n oorspronklike benadering sou wees nie, maar ook gepas vir ‘n studie van geslagstendense in die mediese onderwys en professie binne die Suid- Afrikaans konteks. Die navorsingsprojek bevestig dus drie hoofdoelstellings wat relevant tot hierdie ondersoek is. Doelstelling een probeer om die geslagsamestelling van die kohort van mediese gegradueerdes wat nie tot die beroep toegetree het nie, of dié wat besluit het om die beroep te verlaat, te bepaal. Daar is bevind dat daar ‘n verhoogde koers van vordering van mans tot die beroep is, gepaardgaande met ‘n verlaagde koers van vordering van vroue tot die beroep. Doelstelling twee probeer om die redes onderliggende aan die geslagstendense in die mediese skool en die beroep vas te stel. Dus, om ‘n omvattende ondersoek te doen om uit te vind wat onderliggend aan die verlies is, het ek van ‘n gemengde metode benadering tot data insameling en analise gebruik gemaak. Die resultate van die onderhoud data wys dat hierdie vroue voel dat beide institusionele en sosiale faktore ‘n vroulike dokter se besluit om in die beroep te bly, beïnvloed. Tweedens is daar vasgestel dat geskikte rolmodelle in die beroep die belangrikste faktor is in vroue se identifikasie met die beroep, en hulle besluit om in die beroep te bly. Derdens is gevind dat die respondente baie sterk voel dat die kultuur van die mediese beroep ’n negatiewe impak het op ‘n vroulike dokter se besluit om in die beroep te bly, maar soos ook in ander studies bevind is, bring dit ons nie nader aan ‘n begrip van die aard van die kultuur nie. Ten slotte is daar dus met die onderhoud data gevind dat die respondente duidelik bewus is van die teenwoordigheid van ‘n geslagsubstruktuur in die mediese beroep in Suid-Afrika. Ek identifiseer ook sekere elemente van hierdie struktuur wat bydra tot die verlies van vroulike dokters uit die mediese beroep. Doelstelling drie, gebaseer op die uitkomste van die vorige doelstellings, probeer om aanbevelings te maak vir die behoud van mediese dokters in die algemeen, en vroulike dokters spesifiek. Die gevolgtrekking is dat buigsaamheid in die werkskultuur van die mediese beroep van kardinale belang is vir die behoud van dokters in die algemeen, en vroulike dokters meer spesifiek. Dit is ‘n moeilike uitdaging om te oorkom omdat sentrale waardes, soos die belang van kontinuïteit van versorging in die beroep, persepsies laat ontstaan dat meer buigsaamheid in werksomstandighede ‘n negatiewe impak op die versorging van pasiënte sou hê. Dit blyk egter ook dat daar ‘n toenemende erkenning is deur akademici, beleidsontwerpers en mediese praktisyns self van die belang van alternatiewe werkspatrone. Gebaseer op die resultate van die ondersoek is dit duidelik dat die nasionale geslagsverliestendense ‘n rede tot kommer vir die verskaffing van menslike hulpbronne vir die nasionale gesondheidstelsel is, veral teen die agtergrond van ‘n algemeen erkende tekort aan dokters in Suid-Afrika. As vroulike dokters nie effektief in die stelsel opgeneem word nie, hoewel hulle die meerderheid van gegradueerdes is, is dit ‘n tragiese verlies en vermorsing van hulpbronne wat vir opleiding gebruik is. Dit het ook implikasies vir beleid omdat dit blyk dat die Suid-Afrikaanse regering, in sy pogings om dokters te behou, meermale maatreëls gebruik wat perke stel (verpligte gemeenskapsdiens, beperkings vir buitelandse dokters, ens.), waar hulle eerder behoort te fokus op maniere om dokters in Suid-Afrika te hou. Ten slotte stel die proefskrif twee hoofareas voor waarin hierdie bevindings en aanbevelings aangewend kan word: 1) mediese skole/opleiding/onderwys, en 2) die mediese beroep/kultuur.

Margaret Atwood’s novel Surfacing has received considerable critical attention on the issue of “a positive female identity” in a patriarchal society. However, given Atwood’s own stress on the fact that the novel is about the ways both genders work in relation to each other, this criticism has lacked in scrutiny of the novel’s male characters. With a relational approach to the female and male characters, this thesis argues that while creating a positive identity for its female protagonist, the novel effectively creates a rather negative one for its male characters. In order to examine certain sets of relations and the qualities which represent the most honored way of being a man in the novel, I apply the concept of “hegemonic masculinity,” which can be understood as the pattern of practices that explain male domination over women. It is indeed this hegemonic masculinity that the Surfacer rejects in her quest for emancipation. By looking at the hegemonic masculinity in Surfacing, I argue that the novel depicts very typically patriarchal characters in Joe and David and that the society is typically patriarchal. The thesis is divided into three main sections, each examining the most important sets of relations concerning Atwood’s female emancipation. First, I analyze hegemonic structures in the world of the protagonist, including the issues of power, emancipation, and complicity. Then I look into the sexual division of labor to show that the characters assume their default roles without much reflection. Finally, I scrutinize the characters’ relation to the Symbolic and how it affects their sense of identity. In each section, the analyses show that the male characters are reduced to tropes who only serve one function: to be stereotypically oppressive, patriarchal figures in order to facilitate the protagonist’s positive change and empowerment. I argue that Atwood’s failure to imagine male emancipation somewhat taints the development of female identity because the female emancipation becomes arrested.

Este trabalho analisa a pertinência e a intensidade da interferência das relações de gênero nas jornadas e nos ritmos definidores do trabalho docente. Situado entre os estudos da Sociologia da Educação, do Trabalho e da Família, inicia a reflexão sobre o conceito de gênero, articulado pelas teóricas feministas Joan Scott e Linda Nicholson; de divisão sexual do trabalho e suas conseqüências na vida de homens e mulheres, defendidos por Helena Hirata, Danièle Kergoat, Elizabeth Souza-Lobo, Joan Scott, Cristina Bruschini, Bila Sorj, dentre outros; e da noção de tempo, desenvolvida por Norbert Elias e Alberto Melucci. Em seguida, baseado em levantamento sobre a produção acadêmica acerca do trabalho docente sob a ótica das relações de gênero, constata as lacunas dessa produção sobre os tempos de trabalho, analisa a trajetória de constituição do trabalho docente e mostra os significados femininos e masculinos que o perpassam. A pesquisa empírica de caráter qualitativo foi desenvolvida com professoras e professores de Ensino Fundamental II de uma escola municipal da zona sul de São Paulo, durante os anos de 2006 e 2007. Os dados foram obtidos por meio de questionários, diários de uso do tempo, entrevistas semi-estruturadas e diário de campo. O estudo de Cláudio Dedecca sobre tempo, trabalho e gênero forneceu os elementos para a construção dos conceitos analíticos. A maioria dos docentes - homens ou mulheres - possui extensas jornadas de trabalho total, decorrentes, em parte, dos baixos salários. Além dos serviços escolares realizados em casa, recorrentes nas jornadas de todo o grupo, professoras e professores possuem também extensas jornadas de trabalho para a reprodução social, mesmo que em graus variados. A importância da articulação entre as diversas dimensões do tempo na vida dos sujeitos, apontada por Dedecca, considerando a tensão existente entre elas, possibilitou reconhecer a necessária separação entre trabalho feminino e trabalho masculino. No entanto, a análise do cotidiano das professoras e dos professores pesquisados permitiu questionar uma característica ressaltada pela maior parte dos estudos focados no trabalho fora da docência : a dicotomia entre tempos de trabalho econômico maiores -- que supõem trabalho remunerado e tempos de deslocamento -- para os homens e, para as mulheres, tempos de trabalho para a reprodução social maiores, que incluem o trabalho doméstico e o cuidado com filhos, precisa ser problematizada, ao menos no que se refere aos docentes pesquisados. Ademais, as políticas públicas, educacionais e sociais, para garantir igualdade de oportunidades e condições de vida para os professores e as professoras, precisam considerar a articulação entre as esferas da produção e da reprodução. / This research analyzes the pertinence and intensity of how gender relations interfere with the shifts and rhythms that define the teaching work. Located in between the studies in Sociology of Education, Labor and Family, it starts thinking over the concept of gender, as proposed by feminist theorists Joan Scott and Linda Nicholson; of sexual division of labor and its consequences in the life of men and women, as defended by Helena Hirata, Danièle Kergoat, Elizabeth Souza-Lobo, Joan Scott, Cristina Bruschini, Bila Sorj, among others; and the notion of time, developed by Norbert Elias and Alberto Melucci. Next, based on a survey of the academic production on teaching work under the viewpoint of gender relations, the research finds the gaps in such production about the working times, analyzes how the teaching work is instituted, and shows the feminine and masculine meanings that are intertwined in it. Empirical data are of qualitative nature and were collected among male and female middleschool teachers in a public institution in south area of the city of Sao Paulo, in 2006 and 2007. Data were acquired by means of questionnaires, diaries were the use of time was written down, semi-structured interviews and field diary. The study by Cláudio Dedecca about time, labor and gender provided the elements to construct the analytical concepts. Most teachers - either male or female - have extensive hours of total work partly as a result of their low wages. In addition to the school services they perform at home, which are recurring in the shifts in the entire group, teachers also face many hours of social reproduction work, even if in a diversity of degrees. The importance of the articulation between the several dimensions of time in the life of the subjects, pointed out by Dedecca, considering the tension between them, has allowed the acknowledgment of the necessary separation between feminine work and masculine work. However, the analysis of the everyday life led by male and female teachers taking part in the research allows one to think about a characteristic highlighted by most studies focusing on work, other than teaching work: the dichotomy between the times of economic work that are longer for men, which assume waged work and times of movement, and time of work for social reproduction that are longer for women, which include home chores and taking care of children. This needs to be questioned, at least in the face of what teachers have responded. Moreover, educational and social public policies, in order to ensure equal opportunities and living conditions for male and female teachers, have to consider the articulation between the spheres of production and reproduction.

Submitted by Filipe dos Santos (fsantos@pucsp.br) on 2018-09-05T12:09:48Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Julieta Maria Haical Haddad.pdf: 1003811 bytes, checksum: 28630e9ff8ed3df1c1181132ebd10de3 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-05T12:09:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Julieta Maria Haical Haddad.pdf: 1003811 bytes, checksum: 28630e9ff8ed3df1c1181132ebd10de3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-08-17 / This study aimed at exploring, from the discourse of couples, the way household chores are shared and at identifying agreements and disagreements between spouses and their attitudes toward the distribution of these chores at home. The instrument of this qualitative and exploratory research was a semi-structured interview based on a script specifically designed for the purpose of the study. Participants were five heterosexual couples, aging from 21 to 58 years old, with children and living in a city in the countryside of the State of São Paulo. Other inclusion criteria were that both spouses had a paid job and the aid of a housemaid once a week at most. The analysis of the interviews led to the establishment of categories which were articulated and interpreted based on the theoretical framework of the Analytical Psychology. The results indicate that the behavior of these couples no longer follows a traditional conception of gender roles, but rather it is structured around an agreement that implies a direct relation between paid and domestic work, the responsibility with the latter depending on the time invested on the former. The narratives suggest that this is a solution dictated by practical needs and does not eliminate conflicts, since it considers only one variable – time available for the accomplishment of house chores – not including the appreciation of individual preferences. No evidence has been found that this new arrangement is based on attitudes that take into account gender equality regarding rights and responsibilities. It is noteworthy that the fact of facing the burden of a double working day seems to contribute to both spouses associating negative emotions with domestic tasks, although there are more mentions of unpleasant emotions on the part of the wives, which implies that it would not be such a natural task for them and that perhaps the dissatisfaction comes from a culturally imposed sense of obligation that does not affect men. The research points to the conclusion that clinical psychologists may have their comprehension enriched by taking into consideration that couples, in their daily private routine – as seen in the study – do not realize the clash between their agreed choices and their unconscious conflicts or motivations / O presente trabalho objetivou investigar, a partir do discurso dos casais, o modo como a distribuição dos afazeres domésticos é estabelecida e identificar concordâncias e discordâncias entre os cônjuges e as atitudes com respeito à divisão das tarefas dentro do lar. O estudo de caráter qualitativo e exploratório utilizou como instrumento a entrevista semiestruturada baseada em roteiro especificamente desenhado para a pesquisa. Participaram cinco casais heteroafetivos com filhos, com idades entre 21 e 58 anos, residentes em cidade do interior paulista. O exercício de ocupação remunerada externa ao domicílio por ambos os cônjuges e o apoio de profissional para realização dos serviços domésticos no máximo uma vez por semana constituíram também critérios de inclusão. A análise das entrevistas levou ao estabelecimento de categorias que foram articuladas e interpretadas com base no arcabouço teórico da Psicologia Analítica. Os resultados indicam que o comportamento desses casais não mais obedece a uma concepção tradicional dos papéis de gênero, mas antes se estrutura em torno de um acordo que prevê uma relação direta entre o trabalho remunerado e o doméstico, a responsabilidade com este dependendo do tempo investido naquele. Os relatos apontam ser essa uma solução ditada por necessidades práticas e que não elimina conflitos, pois considera apenas uma variável – tempo disponível para a realização das tarefas domésticas – e não inclui a apreciação das preferências individuais. Não foram encontrados indícios de que o novo arranjo tem por base atitudes que levem em consideração a igualdade de gêneros em termos de direitos e deveres. Destaca-se que o fato de enfrentarem uma dupla jornada de trabalho contribui para que ambos atribuam emoções negativas ao trabalho doméstico. No entanto, há mais relato de emoções desagradáveis por parte das mulheres, o que dá a entender que não seria uma tarefa tão natural para elas e que talvez o desagrado provenha do sentimento de obrigação culturalmente imposto, que não afeta os homens. Conclui-se que a compreensão do psicólogo clínico pode ser enriquecida ao levar em conta que os casais, em sua rotina privada – como visto no estudo –, não percebem o entrechoque entre suas escolhas acordadas e conflitos ou motivações inconscientes

O envelhecimento populacional tem como uma de suas implicações o aumento do número de indivíduos com incapacidade funcional, o que gera uma demanda por de cuidados de longa duração, exercidos principalmente pelas famílias. Essas, por suas transformações contemporâneas tendem a ter reduzida a sua capacidade de atender a essa demanda. Assim, a presença do cuidador formal domiciliar de pessoa idosa como elemento fundamental, nesse contexto, deixa de ser um problema do âmbito privado e configura-se em uma questão de saúde pública. O presente estudo investigou a trajetória ocupacional de cuidadoras formais domiciliares de pessoas idosas, com o objetivo de compreender seus principais eventos e características, a percepção que elas têm do seu trabalho, de seu processo de capacitação e do cuidado. Nesta pesquisa qualitativa, os dados foram examinados com utilização da técnica da Análise do Discurso, a partir da construção de uma linha cronológica das trajetórias, com seus principais eventos e categorização das frases significativas, destacadas dos relatos. As categorias empíricas de análise foram: trabalho, gênero, qualificação e cuidado. Verificou-se que as mulheres chegam ao trabalho de cuidadora formal domiciliar de pessoa idosa pelo trabalho doméstico, pela qualificação formal ou pela experiência de cuidar de seus familiares idosos. As trajetórias são caracterizadas pela precarização do trabalho, especialmente daqueles desenvolvidos no ambiente domiciliar, pela inserção e reinserção das mulheres no mercado de trabalho via ambiente doméstico, pela desvalorização do trabalho feminino, pela dificuldade em conciliar os cuidados aos filhos e familiares idosos com o trabalho remunerado, pela escolarização e profissionalização (quando há) tardias, pela experiência prática como sendo a principal ferramenta qualificadora, e pelo cuidado como disposição ética promotora de sentido para a atividade laboral. Conclui-se que, a promoção de relações de gênero mais igualitárias, a educação formal específica, a regulamentação da profissão e a adoção de um novo modelo de trabalho e emprego na área de cuidados à pessoa idosa, podem melhorar a qualidade desse trabalho, assim como promover o bem estar dos idosos dependentes e de suas famílias / One of the consequences of population aging is the growth of individuals with functional disability which creates a demand for long term care, primarily exercised by the families. Due to contemporary transformations, families tend to reduce their ability to meet this demand. Therefore, the presence formal home caregiver of elderly as a key element in this context is no longer a private issue to become a matter of public health. The present study investigated the occupational trajectory of formal female home caregivers of elderly, aiming to understand their key events and their main characteristics, as well as the perception they have of their own job, their process of training and about care itself. This qualitative research has examined the data using the Discourse Analysis technique, starting from the construction of a timeline of each trajectory, which embraced its main events and the categorization of all significant sentences, highlighted from their stories. The empirical categories of analysis were: work, gender, qualification and care. It was found that women start up as formal home caregivers of elderly through domestic housework, formal qualification or the experience of caring for their own elderly relatives. The trajectories are characterized by poor job relations, especially the ones developed in the home environment, by the integration and reintegration of women into the labor market through domestic environment, the devaluation of women\'s work, by the difficulty in reconciling the care of their children and elderly relatives with their professional paid activities, for late education and professional training (when existed), by practical experience as the main qualifying tool, and the care as an ethical promoter of sense for labor activities. This study concludes that promoting more equitable gender relation, specific formal education, legal regulation of the profession and the adoption of a new model of work and employment for the formal caregivers of elderly field, tend to improve the quality of this work, as well as promote the well-being of the dependent elderly and their families.

Contextualização: Na última década, o expressivo aumento da taxa e do tempo de desemprego resultou no surgimento de grupos que há mais de um ano se encontram sem nenhum tipo de vínculo empregatício — desemprego prolongado. Os homens em idade produtiva e de baixa e média escolaridade; têm sido particularmente atingidos. Referencial Teórico: Os discursos normativos referentes à masculinidade e à feminilidade mantêm estreita relação com os lugares construídos para o homem, no mundo da produção; e para a mulher, no universo doméstico. As recentes mudanças nas formas de trabalho possivelmente estão promovendo aberturas para o surgimento de construções discursivas mais pluralizadas. Assim, a linguagem assume relevância enquanto uma instância possível de construção e transformação dos sentidos, em que estão implicados tanto os eventos sociais como os diferentes sujeitos. Objetivos: Investigar o lugar ocupado pelo trabalho e pela divisão sexual do trabalho nas subjetividades de homens atingidos pelo desemprego de longa duração. Método: Entrevistas semi-estruturadas e individuais, com quinze homens casados e desempregados há mais de um ano, residentes nos municípios de Diadema (SP) e São Bernardo do Campo (SP). Procedeu-se à Análise do Discurso do Sujeito Coletivo. Considerações: Os homens entrevistados conhecem e realizam várias formas de trabalho; contudo apresentam como referencial de vida o trabalho assalariado — emprego. Quanto à divisão sexual do trabalho, foram encontrados discursos que atribuem papéis diferenciados ao homem e à mulher, justificando-os a partir das características biológicas. Porém, foram identificados outros discursos que revelam um processo de transformação: a mulher realizando trabalhos com conteúdos masculinos e sustentando a família e os homens exercendo o cuidado dos filhos como exercício da paternidade. / Contextualization: In the past decade the marked increase in rate and length of unemployment led to emergence of groups that have had no type of employment relationship for over one year, that is, prolonged unemployment. Men at working age, with low and medium schooling levels, have been the most affected individuals. Theoretical Reference: The normative discourse regarding masculinity and femininity keep close relation with spaces built for men - the production world, and for women - the domestic universe. The recent changes in labor relations are possibly promoting space for emergence of more pluralized discursive constructions. Therefore, language assumes importance as an eventual dimension for establishing and transforming meanings, in which both social events and different subjects are involved. Objectives: To investigate the place occupied by work and by sexual division of labor in male subjectivities affected by long-lasting unemployment. Method: Individual, semi-structured interviews with 15 men, married, unemployed for over one year, and residing in the cities of Diadema and São Bernardo do Campo (SP). A collective discourse analysis was performed. Considerations: The males interviewed know and perform several types of work; however their life reference is waged work - employment. As to sexual division of labor, there were discourses attributing different roles to man and woman based on biological characteristics. Nevertheless, other discourses were identified showing a transformation process: women performing jobs with male features and earning the living for the family, and men taking care of children as a paternity exercise.

This thesis examines the history of domestic service in Zambia from the 1960s to the present day. Domestic service was one of the largest sectors of urban employment throughout this period and involved large numbers of men, women and children selling and buying labour in a variety of working arrangements. The sector has, however, received little scholarly or official attention, reflecting a broader historiographical neglect of informal sector employment and the female workers who predominate in this area of the economy. The lack of attention paid to domestic service by academics and policy-makers has considerably limited the questions that have been asked about who workers are and how processes of reproduction and production have been organized at a household and societal level in Zambia, both historically and in the present. Most immediately, in order to work outside of the home, earn money and access crucial resources, thousands of Zambians needed to find someone else to take care of their homes and children. Drawing on a wide range of source material, this study demonstrates the importance of domestic service to social and economic relations in post-colonial Zambia. The study centres on domestic service arrangements in black households in the capital city of Lusaka. It examines how and why men, women and children found work in service, how and why employers sought help with domestic and care labour, and the relationships that developed between these parties. The study illustrates the diversity of the sector, with working arrangements varying from seemingly-informal kinship-based labour relations at one end of the spectrum to formalised, contractual employment at the other. The study also explains the gendered and generational shifts that have reshaped domestic service over the last fifty years, drawing attention to the increased significance of women and female children's labour. Overall this thesis provides new insights into class formation, rural-urban dependencies, gender relations, and the nature of inequality in a post-colonial African city.

Este trabalho analisa a pertinência e a intensidade da interferência das relações de gênero nas jornadas e nos ritmos definidores do trabalho docente. Situado entre os estudos da Sociologia da Educação, do Trabalho e da Família, inicia a reflexão sobre o conceito de gênero, articulado pelas teóricas feministas Joan Scott e Linda Nicholson; de divisão sexual do trabalho e suas conseqüências na vida de homens e mulheres, defendidos por Helena Hirata, Danièle Kergoat, Elizabeth Souza-Lobo, Joan Scott, Cristina Bruschini, Bila Sorj, dentre outros; e da noção de tempo, desenvolvida por Norbert Elias e Alberto Melucci. Em seguida, baseado em levantamento sobre a produção acadêmica acerca do trabalho docente sob a ótica das relações de gênero, constata as lacunas dessa produção sobre os tempos de trabalho, analisa a trajetória de constituição do trabalho docente e mostra os significados femininos e masculinos que o perpassam. A pesquisa empírica de caráter qualitativo foi desenvolvida com professoras e professores de Ensino Fundamental II de uma escola municipal da zona sul de São Paulo, durante os anos de 2006 e 2007. Os dados foram obtidos por meio de questionários, diários de uso do tempo, entrevistas semi-estruturadas e diário de campo. O estudo de Cláudio Dedecca sobre tempo, trabalho e gênero forneceu os elementos para a construção dos conceitos analíticos. A maioria dos docentes - homens ou mulheres - possui extensas jornadas de trabalho total, decorrentes, em parte, dos baixos salários. Além dos serviços escolares realizados em casa, recorrentes nas jornadas de todo o grupo, professoras e professores possuem também extensas jornadas de trabalho para a reprodução social, mesmo que em graus variados. A importância da articulação entre as diversas dimensões do tempo na vida dos sujeitos, apontada por Dedecca, considerando a tensão existente entre elas, possibilitou reconhecer a necessária separação entre trabalho feminino e trabalho masculino. No entanto, a análise do cotidiano das professoras e dos professores pesquisados permitiu questionar uma característica ressaltada pela maior parte dos estudos focados no trabalho fora da docência : a dicotomia entre tempos de trabalho econômico maiores -- que supõem trabalho remunerado e tempos de deslocamento -- para os homens e, para as mulheres, tempos de trabalho para a reprodução social maiores, que incluem o trabalho doméstico e o cuidado com filhos, precisa ser problematizada, ao menos no que se refere aos docentes pesquisados. Ademais, as políticas públicas, educacionais e sociais, para garantir igualdade de oportunidades e condições de vida para os professores e as professoras, precisam considerar a articulação entre as esferas da produção e da reprodução. / This research analyzes the pertinence and intensity of how gender relations interfere with the shifts and rhythms that define the teaching work. Located in between the studies in Sociology of Education, Labor and Family, it starts thinking over the concept of gender, as proposed by feminist theorists Joan Scott and Linda Nicholson; of sexual division of labor and its consequences in the life of men and women, as defended by Helena Hirata, Danièle Kergoat, Elizabeth Souza-Lobo, Joan Scott, Cristina Bruschini, Bila Sorj, among others; and the notion of time, developed by Norbert Elias and Alberto Melucci. Next, based on a survey of the academic production on teaching work under the viewpoint of gender relations, the research finds the gaps in such production about the working times, analyzes how the teaching work is instituted, and shows the feminine and masculine meanings that are intertwined in it. Empirical data are of qualitative nature and were collected among male and female middleschool teachers in a public institution in south area of the city of Sao Paulo, in 2006 and 2007. Data were acquired by means of questionnaires, diaries were the use of time was written down, semi-structured interviews and field diary. The study by Cláudio Dedecca about time, labor and gender provided the elements to construct the analytical concepts. Most teachers - either male or female - have extensive hours of total work partly as a result of their low wages. In addition to the school services they perform at home, which are recurring in the shifts in the entire group, teachers also face many hours of social reproduction work, even if in a diversity of degrees. The importance of the articulation between the several dimensions of time in the life of the subjects, pointed out by Dedecca, considering the tension between them, has allowed the acknowledgment of the necessary separation between feminine work and masculine work. However, the analysis of the everyday life led by male and female teachers taking part in the research allows one to think about a characteristic highlighted by most studies focusing on work, other than teaching work: the dichotomy between the times of economic work that are longer for men, which assume waged work and times of movement, and time of work for social reproduction that are longer for women, which include home chores and taking care of children. This needs to be questioned, at least in the face of what teachers have responded. Moreover, educational and social public policies, in order to ensure equal opportunities and living conditions for male and female teachers, have to consider the articulation between the spheres of production and reproduction.

O envelhecimento populacional tem como uma de suas implicações o aumento do número de indivíduos com incapacidade funcional, o que gera uma demanda por de cuidados de longa duração, exercidos principalmente pelas famílias. Essas, por suas transformações contemporâneas tendem a ter reduzida a sua capacidade de atender a essa demanda. Assim, a presença do cuidador formal domiciliar de pessoa idosa como elemento fundamental, nesse contexto, deixa de ser um problema do âmbito privado e configura-se em uma questão de saúde pública. O presente estudo investigou a trajetória ocupacional de cuidadoras formais domiciliares de pessoas idosas, com o objetivo de compreender seus principais eventos e características, a percepção que elas têm do seu trabalho, de seu processo de capacitação e do cuidado. Nesta pesquisa qualitativa, os dados foram examinados com utilização da técnica da Análise do Discurso, a partir da construção de uma linha cronológica das trajetórias, com seus principais eventos e categorização das frases significativas, destacadas dos relatos. As categorias empíricas de análise foram: trabalho, gênero, qualificação e cuidado. Verificou-se que as mulheres chegam ao trabalho de cuidadora formal domiciliar de pessoa idosa pelo trabalho doméstico, pela qualificação formal ou pela experiência de cuidar de seus familiares idosos. As trajetórias são caracterizadas pela precarização do trabalho, especialmente daqueles desenvolvidos no ambiente domiciliar, pela inserção e reinserção das mulheres no mercado de trabalho via ambiente doméstico, pela desvalorização do trabalho feminino, pela dificuldade em conciliar os cuidados aos filhos e familiares idosos com o trabalho remunerado, pela escolarização e profissionalização (quando há) tardias, pela experiência prática como sendo a principal ferramenta qualificadora, e pelo cuidado como disposição ética promotora de sentido para a atividade laboral. Conclui-se que, a promoção de relações de gênero mais igualitárias, a educação formal específica, a regulamentação da profissão e a adoção de um novo modelo de trabalho e emprego na área de cuidados à pessoa idosa, podem melhorar a qualidade desse trabalho, assim como promover o bem estar dos idosos dependentes e de suas famílias / One of the consequences of population aging is the growth of individuals with functional disability which creates a demand for long term care, primarily exercised by the families. Due to contemporary transformations, families tend to reduce their ability to meet this demand. Therefore, the presence formal home caregiver of elderly as a key element in this context is no longer a private issue to become a matter of public health. The present study investigated the occupational trajectory of formal female home caregivers of elderly, aiming to understand their key events and their main characteristics, as well as the perception they have of their own job, their process of training and about care itself. This qualitative research has examined the data using the Discourse Analysis technique, starting from the construction of a timeline of each trajectory, which embraced its main events and the categorization of all significant sentences, highlighted from their stories. The empirical categories of analysis were: work, gender, qualification and care. It was found that women start up as formal home caregivers of elderly through domestic housework, formal qualification or the experience of caring for their own elderly relatives. The trajectories are characterized by poor job relations, especially the ones developed in the home environment, by the integration and reintegration of women into the labor market through domestic environment, the devaluation of women\'s work, by the difficulty in reconciling the care of their children and elderly relatives with their professional paid activities, for late education and professional training (when existed), by practical experience as the main qualifying tool, and the care as an ethical promoter of sense for labor activities. This study concludes that promoting more equitable gender relation, specific formal education, legal regulation of the profession and the adoption of a new model of work and employment for the formal caregivers of elderly field, tend to improve the quality of this work, as well as promote the well-being of the dependent elderly and their families.