Le chitosane est un polysaccharide naturel, généralement reconnu pour sa biocompatibilité et biodégradabilité. Sa notoriété se doit non seulement à la diversité de ses applications biomédicales, mais aussi à la disponibilité des groupes fonctionnels qui permettent la modification de ses caractéristiques physicochimiques. Dans le contexte de la thérapie génique, le chitosane est reconnu pour son potentiel en tant que nanovecteur, pour transporter du matériel génique à l’intérieur des cellules. Notre laboratoire a mis au point la synthèse d’un diéthylaminoéthyl-chitosane-polyéthylène glycol-acide folique (DEAE12-CH-PEG-FA2), qui a déjà démontré sa capacité de transfection in vitro sur plusieurs lignées cellulaires et son potentiel thérapeutique en tant que nanoparticule dans un modèle animal d’arthrite. Ces résultats prometteurs ont encouragé la suite de nos recherches. Ainsi, l’évaluation des propriétés cytotoxiques et hémotoxiques de notre chitosane modifié et de ses nanoparticules s’est avérée une étape essentielle pour continuer vers une potentielle application clinique. Étant donné les résultats contradictoires des rapports sur les caractéristiques hémocompatibles de ce polymère, en plus du manque de témoins d’interférence, de l’absence de données sur le niveau de contamination aux endotoxines des formulations et l’hétérogénéité des protocoles expérimentaux dans la littérature, nous avons employé les lignes directrices de l’ISO, l’ASTM et le NCL pour estimer son profil toxicologique. Dans cette étude, nous avons approfondi les connaissances sur l'hémocompatibilité des nanoparticules de DEAE12-CH-PEG-FA2/siRNA dans un cadre contrôlé et informatif. Cette évaluation a montré une faible réponse hémolytique et d’agrégation plaquettaire, et aucun effet sur le système du complément et sur le temps de coagulation du plasma. Également, la mesure du niveau de radicaux libres (ROS et NO) n’a pas décelé une réponse biologique reliée au stress oxydatif. Cependant, la viabilité cellulaire et le niveau de libération de la lactate déshydrogénase (LDH) ont révélé une relation en fonction de la concentration, du temps d’exposition et du type cellulaire étudié. Enfin, l’expression de cytokines telles que le TNF-α, l’IL-6, l’IL-4 et l’IL-10 ont été comparables à ceux du témoin négatif, le PBS. Dans cette quête de l’estimation des propriétés biocompatibles de notre chitosane, notre projet s’est dirigé vers l’étude des mécanismes moléculaires. C’est ainsi que nous avons étudié les voies de signalisation reliées aux récepteurs de surface cellulaire susceptibles de reconnaître le chitosane, notamment le récepteur toll-like 4 (TLR-4) et les récepteurs de lectine de type C (CLR). Nos données révèlent que les nanoparticules de DEAE12-CH-PEG-FA2/siRNA, à différentes concentrations et à différentes périodes d’incubation, n’activent pas les voies de signalisation des IKK/NF-κβ, MAPKs, AKT et SYK. Ces résultats ont été supportés par l’absence d’une réponse pro-inflammatoire mesurée à partir de l’expression de médiateurs clés comme le TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, COX-2 et iNOS. Au vu de nos découvertes, nous pouvons déduire le potentiel d’innocuité de notre chitosane modifié (DEAE12-CH-PEG-FA2), indispensable pour son application dans la thérapie génique. Également, nous suggérerons la possibilité que des récepteurs cellulaires qui n’ont pas encore été identifiés soient impliqués dans la reconnaissance et l’internalisation du chitosane, ce qui mérite la réalisation d’études plus approfondies. / Chitosan is a natural polysaccharide, generally known for its biocompatibility and biodegradability. Its notoriety is due not only to the diversity of its biomedical applications but also to the presence of functional groups in its chain, which allow the modification of its physiochemical properties. In gene therapy applications, chitosan is known for its potential as a nanovector to transport genetic material to cells. Our laboratory has synthesized a modified-chitosan diethylaminoethyl-chitosan-polyethylene glycol-folic acid (DEAE12-CH-PEG-FA2), which has already shown in vitro transfection efficiency in several cell lines and a therapeutic potential as a nanoparticle in an animal arthritis model. These promising results encouraged further research. Thus, the evaluation of the cytotoxic and hemotoxic properties of our modified chitosan and its nanoparticles became an essential step to continue towards potential clinical applications. Given the existing contradictory outcomes about the hemocompatible characteristics of this polymer, as well as the lack of interference controls, the absence of data on endotoxin levels in nanoformulations and the diversity of the experimental protocols, we used ISO, ASTM and NCL’s guidelines to estimate its toxicological profile. In this study, we discovered new information about DEAE12-CH-PEG-FA2/siRNA nanoparticle hemocompatibility, in a controlled and informative framework. This evaluation showed low hemolytic properties, low platelet aggregation capacity with no effect on the complement and coagulation systems. Moreover, detection of free radical levels (ROS and NO) did not show a biological response related to oxidative stress. Nevertheless, cell viability and the levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release revealed concentration-, incubation time- and cell-dependent outcomes. Regarding cytokine expression, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-4 and IL-10 levels were equivalent to those of the negative control, PBS. In the quest to evaluate the biocompatible properties of chitosan, our project focused on the study of its molecular mechanisms. Therefore, we studied signaling pathways related to receptors that have been associated to chitosan recognition such as toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) and C-type lectin receptors (CLRs). Our data revealed that DEAE12-CH-PEG-FA2/siRNA nanoparticles, at the studied concentrations and time courses, did not activate the IKK/NF-κB, MAPKs, AKT nor SYK signaling pathways. These results were supported by the absence of an inflammatory response measured by the expression of key mediators such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, COX-2 and iNOS. In view of our findings, we deduced the safety potential of our modified chitosan (DEAE12-CH-PEG-FA2) which is mandatory for gene therapy applications. Moreover, we suggest the involvement of unidentified cellular receptors in the recognition and uptake of chitosan which warrant further investigation.

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Highly fluorescent conjugated polymers (CPs) are an important class of biomaterials used for various biological applications including labelling, sensing, and delivery of biological substances. Synthetic versatility and tunable emission make CPs a superior class of biomaterials. Understanding the structure-function relationship of CPs plays a vital role in designing high performing biomaterials. The cationic CPs are self-assembled to conjugated polymer nanoparticles (CPNs) in an aqueous environment due to their amphiphilicity. The physical and biophysical properties of CPNs are highly dependent on the chemical functionality and backbone structure of CPs. Modulation of the surface property and backbone structure of CPNs play an important role for efficient internalization of CPNs into cells. The goal of this dissertation is to understand the structure function relationship of CPNs in an aqueous environment and the change in their photo physical properties upon the self-assembly of CPNs with different backbone structure upon complexation with biologically significant polysaccharides and cell membrane. This work presents the self-assembly of a set of four cationic CPs with different connectivity and backbone structure upon complexation with a linear polyanion hyaluronic acid (HA). The study of photo physical properties changes upon the complexation with series of Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) provides more insight about how the self-assembly behavior of cationic CPs changes upon the exposure to negatively charged polysaccharides. The understanding of the self-assembly of CPNs with negatively charged biologically important macromolecules under in vitro conditions can give us an idea of photophysical property changes of CPNs during the treatment of CPNs in the cellular environment. The study of the interaction of CPNs with cell membranes using scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM)-based topography, potential mapping, and confocal microscopy imaging is presented. CPNs are able to induce transient pore like feature formation on the cell membrane during the cellular internalization process. A comparative study of cellular labelling and delivery of siRNA of five CPNs with guanidine motif is presented. The subcellular localization and delivery of siRNA were dependent on the side chain hydrophilicity. The CPNs fabricated with hydrophilic aminoethoxyethanol possesses excellent cellular imaging with higher siRNA delivery.

El càncer de pàncrees és altament agressiu i representa la cinquena causa de mort al mon occidental. Anteriorment, en el nostre laboratori, vam identificar que el receptor tissular del plasminogen (tPA) hi està sobre-expressat i juga un paper important el la progressió tumoral. En la present tesi hem profunditzat en l'estudi del mecanisme molecular de tPA i seus receptors en aquest càncer. En primer lloc hem caracteritzat en detall la interacció de tPA amb Annexina A2 (principal receptor de tPA en endoteli i altament expressada en pàncrees) demostrant que les dades publicades sobre la seqüència responsable de la interacció no eren correctes. A més a més hem caracteritzat les proteïnes de lisats cel·lulars pancreàtics que interaccionen amb tPA mitjançant un assaig pull down i posterior anàlisi proteòmic. de tot identificant un conjunt de possibles lligands de tPA. D'entre aquests hem seleccionat galectina 1, una lectina que mai s'ha descrit que interaccioni amb tPA, per realitzar la caracterització bioquímica i funcional del seu paper com a nou lligand de tPA en càncer de pàncrees. / Pancreatic cancer is a highly aggressive disease and represents the fifth cause of death in occidental world. Our laboratory has previously reported tissue type plasminogen activator (tPA) over expression in this cancer and its role in tumoral progression. During the present thesis we have studied tPA and its molecular mechanism through its receptors in this tumor.We have first characterized tPA interaction with annexin A2 (its main receptor in endothelium and highly expressed in pancreas). Our results showed that published data about the sequence responsible of this interaction was not correct. We have also identified a set of new putative tPA receptors in pancreatic cell lisates using a pull down assay and proteomic analysis. One of the proteins identified was galectin 1, a lectin with not know relation with tPA. We performed a biochemical and functional characterization of the interaction between these two proteins in pancreatic cancer.

The aim of this thesis is the characterization of a protein involved in apoptosis. Our group has identified an early step common to different forms of intrinsic apoptosis stimuli. This step requires de novo synthesis of a novel Cyclin, Cyclin O, that upon apoptosis induction in lymphoid cells forms active complexes, primarily with Cdk2. Cyclin O expression precedes glucocorticoid and gamma radiation-induced apoptosis in vivo in mouse thymus and its overexpression induces apoptosis in cultured cells. Knocking down the endogenous expression of Cyclin O by shRNA leads to the inhibition of glucocorticoid and DNA damage-induced apoptosis while leaving CD95 death receptor mediated apoptosis intact. This data demonstrates that apoptosis induction in lymphoid cells is one of the physiological roles of Cyclin O and it does not act by perturbing a normal cellular process such as the cell cycle. In addition we have identified c-Myb a substrate of Cdk2-Cyclin O complexes and we show that c-Myb is downregulated during apoptosis of lymphoid cells. / L'objectiu d'aquesta tesi és la caracterització d'una proteïna involucrada en l'apoptosi. El nostre grup ha identificat un pas primerenc comú en diversos estímuls apoptòtics de la ruta intrínseca. Aquest pas requereix la síntesi de novo d'una nova Ciclina, Ciclina O, que quan s'indueix apoptosi en cèl·lules limfoides forma complexes actius majoritàriament amb Cdk2. L'expressió de la Ciclina O és prèvia a l'apoptosi induïda per glucocorticoids i radiació gamma i la seva sobreexpressió indueix apoptosi en cultius cel·lulars. La baixada dels nivells d'expressió de la Ciclina O endògena amb shRNA provoca una inhibició de l'apoptosi induïda per glucocorticoids o agents que danyen el DNA, mentre que l'apoptosi mediada pel receptor CD95 es manté intacta. Aquests resultats demostren que la inducció d'apoptosi en cèl·lules limfoides és una de les funcions fisiològiques de la Ciclina O i que no es deu a una pertorbació de processos cel·lulars normals com ara el cicle cel·lular. A més a més, hem identificat c-Myb com a substrat dels complexes Cdk2-Ciclina O i demostrem que els nivells de c-Myb baixen durant l'apoptosis de cèl·lules limfoides.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), exosomes and microvesicles, transfer endogenous RNAs between neurons over short and long distances. We have explored EVs for siRNA delivery to brain. (1) We optimized siRNA chemical modifications and siRNA conjugation to lipids for EV-mediated delivery. (2) We developed a GMP-compatible, scalable method to manufacture active EVs in bulk. (3) We characterized lipid and protein content of EVs in detail. (4) We established how protein and lipid composition relates to siRNA delivering activity of EVs, and we reverse engineered natural exosomes (small EVs) into artificial exosomes based on these data. We established that cholesterol-conjugated siRNAs passively associate to EV membrane and can be productively delivered to target neurons. We extensively characterized this loading process and optimized exosome-to-siRNA ratios for loading. We found that chemical stabilization of 5'-phosphate with 5'-E-vinylphosphonate and chemical stabilization of all nucleotides with 2'-O-methyl and 2'-fluoro increases the accumulation of siRNA and the level of mRNA silencing in target cells. Therefore, we recommend using fully modified siRNAs for lipid-mediated loading to EVs. Later, we identified that α-tocopherol-succinate (vitamin E) conjugation to siRNA increases productive loading to exosomes compared to originally described cholesterol. Low EV yield has been a rate-limiting factor in preclinical development of the EV technology. We developed a scalable EV manufacturing process based on three-dimensional, xenofree culture of mesenchymal stem cells and concentration of EVs from conditioned media using tangential flow filtration. This process yields exosomes more efficient at siRNA delivery than exosomes isolated via differential ultracentrifugation from two-dimensional cultures of the same cells. In-depth characterization of EV content is required for quality control of EV preparations as well as understanding composition–activity relationship of EVs. We have generated mass-spectrometry data on more than 3000 proteins and more than 2000 lipid species detected in exosomes (small EVs) and microvesicles (large EVs) isolated from five different producer cells: two cell lines (U87 and Huh7) and three mesenchymal stem cell types (derived from bone marrow, adipose tissue and umbilical cord Wharton’s jelly). These data represent an indispensable resource for the community. Furthermore, relating composition change to activity change of EVs isolated from cells upon serum deprivation allowed us to identify essential components of siRNA-delivering exosomes. Based on these data we reverse engineered natural exosomes into artificial exosomes consisting of dioleoyl-phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, dilysocardiolipin, Rab7, AHSG and Desmoplakin. These artificial exosomes reproduced efficient siRNA delivery of natural exosomes both in vitro and in vivo. Artificial exosomes may facilitate manufacturing, quality control and cargo loading challenge that currently impede the therapeutic EV field.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Insulin-like Growth Factor I (IGF-I) is a growth factor that stimulates both mitogenic and anabolic responses in articular chondrocytes. While it has been shown that exogenous IGF-I can regulate chondrocyte integrins, little is known regarding regulatory effects of IGF-I produced from a transiently expressed plasmid based adeno-associated virus (pAAV) vector. Because chondrocytes are using cellular machinery to overexpress IGF-I, it is of interest to see whether or not pAAV IGF-I will significantly upregulate or downregulate chondrocyte integrins. Additionally, it is of interest to know whether chondrocyte adhesion through integrins will have any regulatory effects on the production of IGF-I from the transgene. Therefore, this study will ascertain if pAAV IGF-I will have similar effects that exogenous IGF-I has on integrin regulation and if integrin silencing mechanisms will affect the production of IGF-I from the transgene. To test these hypotheses, adult articular chondrocytes were doubly transfected with the pAAV vector for IGF-I and short interference ribonucleic acid (siRNA) for integrins beta 1 and alpha V. Gene products were monitored at the transcriptional levels using quantitative real time polymerase chain reactions (qPCR) and IGF-I protein production was monitored at the translational level using enzyme linked immunoabsorbant assays (ELISAs). Adult articular chondrocytes doubly transfected were encapsulated in a three dimensional hydrogel system to simulate an in vivo environment. Samples were collected for analysis at days 2, 4, and 6 post encapsulation. Results show that IGF-I treatment with the pAAV vector does not cause significant changes in the transcriptional regulation of the beta 1 integrin in a three dimensional hydrogel system. The pAAV IGF-I vector did not cause significant regulatory changes on integrin alpha V at any time point during the experiment. Additionally, by knocking down the expression levels of integrins by using siRNA, it was shown that integrin knockdown does not have a significant regulatory effect on transcriptional or translational expression levels of IGF-I from the pAAV vector.

<p> </p> <p>Learning about ‘behavior’ has always been at the heart of my research endeavors. While my undergraduate work in evolution and ecology exposed me to the science behind why a behavior exists, in my graduate work, I intended to explore how to use something’s behavior to widen its applicability. In this thesis, <em>I will present three works that utilize some of the fundamental</em></p> <p><em>behaviors (i.e., properties) of elastin-like polypeptides (ELP) to improve existing protein purification methods or explore their applicability in bladder cancer imaging and immunotherapy. </em></p> <p>Bladder cancer has high recurrence rates (60-70 % annually) that necessitate multiple follow-up therapies making it one of the costliest cancers per patient. In this work, we have attempted to address two leading causes of the recurrence. First is a low sensitivity (62-84 %) and variable specificity (43-95 %) of white light cystoscopy used to diagnose and remove tumors. We aimed to address the heart of this problem, i.e., the non-specific mode of detection using white light. Only the trained eyes can discern abnormal from normal-appearing tissues even then, leaving up to 45% of tumors unresected to colonize and spread. <em>We developed and characterized near infrared dye-peptide-ligand conjugates (NIR-ELP-ligand) that undergo receptor-mediated binding and internalization to human bladder cancer cells in vitro and tissues ex vivo.</em> By using a molecular target-based probe in combination with NIR imaging, we can aid in improving the detection limit via selective binding to the tumor and reduction in background autofluorescence.</p> <p>Bacillus-Calmette Guérin (BCG) instillation in the bladder is the gold-standard</p> <p>immunotherapy used after surgical removal of bladder tumors. This was approved as a response to the inefficiency of surgery alone in improving cancer status. It has succeeded by reducing the recurrence rate to 30-50 %. But it comes with the complications of putting a live mycobacterium</p> <p>in the human body and giving a patient a urinary tract infection right after surgical tumor resection. <em>Thus, we aimed to deliver nucleic acid as immunotherapeutic cargo in a selective manner to elicit robust anti-tumor immune responses while minimizing the side effects due to its carrier.</em> Towards</p> <p>this goal, we have developed a highly modular and adaptable ELP-ligand fusion protein-based nucleic acid delivery carrier targeted toward bladder cancer. Before developing targeted peptide-based cancer imaging and nucleic acid delivery modalities, we addressed the Achilles heel of peptide-based approaches. The peptide and protein industry suffers</p> <p>through complex, time-consuming, inconsistent, and low-yielding purification methods. <em>We have developed a scalable, facile, and reproducible protein purification method that delivers ELP and ELP fusion proteins free of host cell proteins and nucleic acids and has low lipopolysaccharide</em></p> <p><em>content in just 3 h starting from a bacterial pellet. </em>Thus, for a coherent narrative, the thesis is structured as follows:</p> <p>1. Introduction</p> <p>2. ELP as a protein purification tag: Development of a rapid purification method for ELPs and ELP fusion proteins.</p> <p>3. ELP as a cancer imaging agent: Development of NIR-ELP-Ligand imaging probe targeting bladder cancer.</p> <p>4. ELP as a drug delivery agent: Utilizing ELP-ligand fusion protein in the formulation of targeted nucleic acid delivery carrier to bladder cancer.</p>