The conflict between the protected area and local people is a major challenge for conservation in developing countries. The conventional top-down approach has failed mainly due to the exclusion of local people in conservation. A new management approach that promotes local participation and reduces conflicts is necessary to achieve both conservation and development objectives. Using the case of Natma Taung National Park (NTNP) in Myanmar, this study investigates the relationship between the protected area and local indigenous people living in and around the park. The social-ecological coevolution model is applied to explore the inter-linkages between the protected area and local people. The empirical analyses focus on three main thematic areas: local land tenure system, livelihood dependency on forest resources, and traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) of local people. The comparative study design is used to analyse similarities and differences among the three indigenous communities living inside, bordering, and outside the national park. Based on this information, four management scenarios are developed and evaluated by using multi-criteria decision analysis.

Given the ongoing biodiversity decline during a time of Indigenous resurgence, Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs) are garnering interest from the academic community, Indigenous and state governments, and protected area practitioners. Though Indigenous forms of land and sea protection have existed for millennia, these actors are exploring how IPCA development and support can meet needs to protect biodiversity and respect Indigenous rights and roles in conservation. My main research objective was to advance academic and practical applications of IPCAs by drawing from global IPCA research while assisting the Kitasoo/Xai’xais Nation’s IPCA planning process. I investigated two research questions: 1. What are the key successes, challenges, and lessons from IPCA research globally? 2. What can we learn from the Kitasoo/Xai’xais Nation’s rationale and process for developing an IPCA? To answer my first question, I reviewed 58 papers, describing 86 specific IPCA initiatives involving at least 68 Indigenous Peoples across 25 countries. Indigenous Peoples established IPCAs independently and through local- and broad-scale partnerships. Where state IPCA support existed, it was through formal legislation, agreements, and policies, and informally through local relationships and shared values. IPCAs created socio-cultural, political, and ecological benefits. Challenges limited benefits while demanding additional resources for mitigation. I recommend that states and other external actors create/improve IPCA policies, legislations, and resources as defined by Indigenous Peoples; facilitate Indigenous leadership to shape external IPCA establishment and development mechanisms; and create internal Indigenous engagement/partnerships mechanisms. I suggest that Indigenous Peoples would benefit from building partnerships to support and manage their IPCAs. Finally, I recommend that IPCA managers commit more resources, particularly in monitoring and management that integrates management priorities with local and larger scale social-environmental issues. To answer my second question, in collaboration with the Kitasoo/Xai’xais Nation, we used participatory action research to assist efforts to plan a land-and-sea IPCA in Kitasoo/Xai’xais Territory. Together, we used mixed methods to summarize the Nation’s rationale and process. IPCA development is an iteration of ongoing efforts to address limitations of state protected areas to better reflect Kitasoo/Xai’xais rights and responsibilities while preserving culture, biodiversity, and economic opportunity. The Kitasoo/Xai’xais process is rooted in long-term Territory planning and contemporary stewardship capacity building, has benefitted from global IPCA research, and has ongoing multi-generational engagement. The Nation faces challenges similar to other protected areas and is additionally burdened by ongoing colonization impacts. To address these challenges, the Nation is seeking state legislative IPCA recognition, applying Indigenous and complementary western stewardship approaches, and pursuing responsibility-based partnerships. This research makes both practical and academic contributions. It assisted the Kitasoo/Xai’xais IPCA process by contributing to planning and documentation, to be used and modified by the Nation to implement current and future IPCAs. Other Indigenous organizations can adapt the lessons and processes described for their IPCA interests. Additionally, this work provides recommendations for states and other actors at various scales to improve IPCA support and recognition. This work also contributes to literature which highlight Indigenous-led conservation initiatives, including IPCAs, as potential pathways towards supporting biodiversity conservation and Indigenous resurgence. / Graduate

<p>Human interactions with white-tailed deer (<em>Odocoileus virginianus</em>) continue to change across the U.S. The growth of deer populations and urbanization of human populations have shifted values for wildlife away from traditional use toward mutual coexistence while simultaneously providing habitat for deer to thrive.<strong> </strong>Still, a mismatch exists between the reality of human-deer interactions and the management of them. Despite a changing social landscape, the human dimensions of deer management remain focused on hunting interests and the mitigation of crop damage to agricultural producers. Amid a national push to broaden wildlife ‘stakeholders’ to encompass all potential beneficiaries of wildlife, state wildlife agencies need to assess the needs and concerns of the broader public they serve to determine whether and how to engage non-traditional groups in wildlife management planning.</p> <p>Recognizing these needs, the Indiana Department of Natural Resources (IN-DNR) partnered with Purdue University in 2018 to initiate the Integrated Deer Management Project (IDMP). As part of the IDMP, this dissertation comprises the first empirical assessment of social perceptions of white-tailed deer across Indiana. My research aimed to: (i) examine the initial context of human-deer interactions in Indiana and identify key social and cognitive factors that shape them; (ii) investigate how emotions, an understudied construct, interact with beliefs and attitudes to influence resident judgements about deer management; (iii) understand existing levels of satisfaction with deer management, potentials for social conflict over management approaches, and their social-ecological drivers; and (iv) develop indices and tools that can help IN-DNR officials better account for social perceptions and concerns in deer management planning. Due to a lack of prior knowledge about human-deer interactions in the state, I used an exploratory mixed-methods research design to address these objectives. I began by conducting 59 semi-structured interviews with residents around Indiana and two focus groups in the city of Bloomington (n=14) to understand their existing perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, and emotions related to deer and deer management. These interviews informed the development of a quantitative survey which I distributed to 6,000 residents across the state. I received 1806 completed surveys for a response rate of 33%.</p> <p>My data show that social perceptions of deer and deer management remain complex, driven by dynamic feedbacks among emotions, personal experiences, livelihood and behavioral contexts, beliefs about deer management, and beliefs about other social groups. I found that mixed emotions, situational contexts, and perceived power imbalances play key roles in shaping and shifting deer-related cognitions, yet models of cognitive processing, and human-wildlife interactions more broadly, neglect these dynamics. Emotions, specifically, have been marginalized by researchers and practitioners, likely due to the perception that they represent irrational reactions rather than calculated judgements. Under different scenarios of encountering deer, however, I found that respondent emotions exert a mediating effect on their judgments about deer management, and that the type of deer encountered matters. Emotions thus work together with cognitions to process various stimuli in a human-wildlife encounter and reach a normative decision. I posit that understanding when and why emotional responses arise will help practitioners develop more effective and socially accepted approaches to wildlife management.</p> <p>I next developed and analyzed indices of public satisfaction with the IN-DNR and potentials for social conflict over deer management approaches. I found that public satisfaction with deer management is nuanced and multidimensional. Cognitive variables like residents’ perceived acceptability of management methods and their deer-related concerns most strongly predicted agency performance and quality measures of satisfaction, whereas demographic characteristics including self-identity, wildlife value orientation, and allowance of hunting on one’s property exerted the strongest influences on trust components of satisfaction. Future studies should advance a multidimensional conception of satisfaction and associate it with key variables that I suspect underly satisfaction but were not captured in this study: perceived control, psychological distance, and norms of knowledge exchange between wildlife agencies and the public. Next, I found that potentials for social conflict over deer management varied with resident self-identities and management methods but showed more predictable variation with political ideologies. Geographically, hotspots of social conflict clustered around urban areas, indicating that cities and their residents should serve as a focus for public engagement efforts and mixed management strategies. Expanding agency conceptions of public satisfaction and social conflict represents a critical step towards broadening support for wildlife management and practicing good wildlife governance.<strong> </strong>I conclude by discussing barriers to integrating social and ecological data and the practicality of incorporating complex social dimensions into wildlife management planning.</p>

Limiting cities’ negative impact for global sustainability suggests compact city development. However, extensive and accessible urban nature is important for urban dwellers’ wellbeing. Aligning efforts to make cities locally and globally sustainable means resolving this conflict. This thesis applies spatial analysis of urban dwellers’ regularly occurring experiences, as these are important wellbeing indicators, looking specifically at Stockholm, Sweden. The aim is to contribute to a nuanced understanding of urban environments’ influence on urban dwellers’ experiences. Paper I investigates how accessibility to various environment features impact the probability that people have positive or negative experiences. Paper II applies resilience principles to investigate what experiences exist together in neighbourhoods. The environment have considerable influence on people’s experiences. Some common indicators in urban planning display weak relationships with experiential outcome, while other less common ones have larger effects. Neighbourhood compositions of experiences display consistent patterns, both spatially across Stockholm and with respect to resilience principles. Many neighbourhoods harbour diverse positive experiences, while a few are dominated by negative ones. The results suggest that human-environment relations should be given more consideration in urban discourse and urban planning. A relational approach could improve urban dweller’s experiences, and positively influence their wellbeing. For urban planning to be able to handle the complexity of such an approach, I suggest that resilience principles can be heuristics for an urban development that does not compromise people’s experiences. The methodological framework developed here can be applied in other cities, as it can identify specific places for transformation, but also increase knowledge of the interplay between urban environments and people’s experiences across different contexts. / För att begränsa städers negativa påverkan på global hållbarhet förordas ofta kompakta stadsmiljöer. För att säkra stadsbors välbefinnande krävs emellertid stora och tillgängliga naturområden. Denna konflikt måste lösas för att nå en stadsutveckling som bidrar till både lokal och global hållbarhet. Denna avhandling består av två studier av Stockholm som tillämpar rumslig analys av människors upplevelser, då dessa är viktiga indikatorer för välbefinnande. Den undersöker hur tillgänglighet till olika miljöfaktorer är relaterade till positiva och negativa upplevelser. Vidare tillämpar den resiliensprinciper för att undersöka vilka upplevelser som samexisterar på områdesskala. Stadsmiljön har betydande påverkan på människors upplevelser. Vissa vanliga indikatorer inom stadsplanering visar svaga samband med upplevelser, medan andra mindre vanliga har större effekter. Sammansättningar av upplevelser på områdesskala uppvisar genomgående mönster, både rumsligt och i förhållande till resiliensprinciper. Många områden innehåller en mångfald av positiva upplevelser, medan ett fåtal domineras av negativa upplevelser. Resultaten visar att relationer mellan människa och miljö bör ta en mer central plats i stadsplaneringen, då detta erbjuder möjligheter att förbättra stadsbors upplevelser. Resiliensprinciper kan fungera som tumregler inom stadsplaneringen för en stadsutveckling som inte äventyrar människors upplevelser. Metoden som utvecklats här kan appliceras i andra städer, då den kan identifiera specifika platser för omvandling, men också leda till djupare förståelse för samspelet mellan stadsmiljöer och människors upplevelser i olika sammanhang.

La gouvernance pour le développement durable comporte de nombreux défis. L'un de ces défis consiste à mieux comprendre les systèmes socio-écologiques gouvernés. Dans de tels systèmes, l'apprentissage par essais et erreurs implique le risque de conséquences inattendues, irréversibles et néfastes. De plus, en raison de la complexité des systèmes socio-écologiques, les leçons tirées d'expériences à petite échelle ne peuvent pas toujours être applicables à des problèmes à grande échelle. Un autre aspect difficile des problèmes de développement durable est que ces problèmes sont souvent multidisciplinaires et composés de composants qui sont chacun étudiés individuellement dans une discipline différente, mais il existe peu d'informations sur leur comportement ensemble. Un troisième défi de la gouvernance pour le développement durable est qu'il est souvent nécessaire d'impliquer les parties prenantes dans des actions de gestion et des mesures d'intervention coûteuses pour les individus qui y participent. De plus, dans de nombreuses situations de ce type, les incitations financières et l'application des réglementations se soldent par un échec et ne constituent donc pas des options de gouvernance. Dans cette thèse, les défis ci-dessus sont abordés dans un exemple de contrôle des perturbations forestières avec une approche intégrée. Pour éviter le problème des effets indésirables irréversibles et pour permettre des expériences répétées, une approche de simulation est utilisée. Pour relever le défi de la multidisciplinarité des problèmes des systèmes socio-écologiques, deux modèles sont développés indépendamment - portant sur les aspects sociaux et écologiques du système de l'étude - et ils sont ensuite couplés de telle sorte que la sortie de chaque modèle est utilisée comme entrée pour l'autre modèle. Pour résoudre le problème de l'engagement des parties prenantes, un plan est proposé pour la promotion d'un comportement respectueux de l'environnement. Ce plan est basé sur l'offre de reconnaissance à ceux qui adoptent volontairement le comportement responsable. Le modèle écologique de cette étude, qui simule la propagation d'une perturbation forestière, est construit à l'aide de l’apprentissage automatique supervisé. Le modèle social de cette étude, qui simule l'émergence d'une nouvelle norme de comportement, est construit à l'aide de l'apprentissage par renforcement. Les deux modèles sont testés et validés avant couplage. Le modèle couplé est ensuite utilisé comme un laboratoire virtuel, où plusieurs expériences sont réalisées dans un cadre hypothétique et selon différents scénarios. Chacune de ces expériences est une simulation. A travers ces simulations, cette étude montre qu'avec un algorithme de prise de décision approprié et avec suffisamment de temps pour l'interaction entre une entité gouvernante et la société, il est possible de créer une motivation pour un comportement responsable dans la société. En d'autres termes, il est possible d'encourager la participation volontaire des acteurs à l'action pour le développement durable, sans que l'entité gouvernante ait besoin d'utiliser des incitations financières ou d'imposer son autorité. Ces résultats peuvent être applicables à d'autres contextes où un comportement responsable des individus ou des entreprises est recherché afin d'atténuer l'impact d'une perturbation, de protéger une ressource écologique, ou de faciliter une transition sectorielle vers la durabilité. / Governance for sustainable development involves many challenges. One of those challenges is to gain insight about the social-ecological systems being governned. In such systems, learning by trial and error involve the risk of unexpected, irreversible and adverse consequences. Moreover, due to complexity of social-ecological systems, lessons learned from small scale experiments may not be applicable in large-scale problems. Another challenging aspect of problems of sustainable development is that these problems are often multidisciplinary and comprised of components that are each studied individually in a different discipline, but little information exists about their behavior together as a whole. A third challenge in governance for sustainable development is that often it is necessary to involve stakeholders in management actions and intervention measures that are costly for individuals who participate in them. Moreover, in many of these situations financial incentives or enforcement of regulations result in failure, and are thus not options for governance. In this thesis, the above challenges are addressed in an example case of forest disturbance control with an integrated approach. To avoid the problem of irreversible adverse effects and to allow repeated experiments, a simulation approach is used. To tackle the challenge of multidisciplinarity of problems of social-ecological systems, two models are independently developed – pertaining to social and ecological aspects of the system of the study – and they are subsequently coupled in such a way that the output of each model served as an input for the other. To address the problem of engagement of stakeholders, a scheme is proposed for promotion of environmentally responsible behavior. This scheme is based on offering recognition to those who voluntarily perform the responsible behavior. The ecological model of this study, which simulates the spread of a forest disturbance, is built using Supervised Machine Learning. The social model of this study, which simulates the emergence of a new norm of behavior, is built using Reinforcement Learning. Both models are tested and validated before coupling. The coupled model is then used as a virtual laboratory, where several experiments are performed in a hypothetical setting and under various scenarios. Each such experiment is a simulation. Through these simulations, this study shows that with an appropriate decision-making algorithm and with sufficient time for interaction between a governing entity and the society, it is possible to create motivation for responsible behavior in the society. In other words, it is possible to encourage voluntary participation of stakeholders in action for sustainable development, without the need for the governing entity to use financial incentives or impose its authority. These results may be applicable to other contexts where responsible behavior by individuals or enterprises is sought in order to mitigate the impact of a disturbance, protect an ecological resource, or facilitate a sectoral transition towards sustainability.

The Rights of Nature is a relatively new approach to sustainable development, promoting that current environmental legislation is insufficient to protect Nature from human harm. The Rights of Nature movements emphases the importance of recognizing other living entities in our legal system. Ecuador was the first country in the world to incorporate the Rights of Nature into its Constitution in 2008. Based on semi-structured interviews, this study aims to investigate the awareness of the Rights of Nature among the inhabitants of the Equatorian small-town of Esperie and how they perceive and relate to the Rights of Nature in practice and whether the implementation has brought about any changes in their lives and community. The central findings of the study demonstrate that the majority of the respondents are aware of the Rights of Nature, also led to changes in society but also in respondents' lives and environment. The results also revealed various challenges that have arisen in the implementation of the Rights of Nature in practice and Due to stricter environmental laws and pressure from the people, the authorities have started to take measures to protect and respect Nature.

Never before have humans wielded a greater ability to alter and disrupt planetary processes. Our impact is becoming so noticeable that a new geological epoch has been proposed – the Anthropocene – in which Earth systems might no longer maintain the stable and predictable conditions of the past 12 millennia. This is particularly evident in the rapid expansion of urban areas, where a majority of humans now live and where environmental changes such as rising temperatures and habitat loss are happening faster than elsewhere.  In light of this, questions have been raised about what a more responsible relationship between humans and the rest of the planet might look like. Scholars in sustainability science employ the concept of ‘stewardship’ in searching for an answer; however, with multiple different applications and definitions, there is a need to better understand what stewardship is or what novelty it might add to sustainability research. This thesis investigates stewardship empirically through two case studies of civic engagement for protecting nature in cities – Bengaluru, India and New York City, USA. Further, the thesis also proposes a conceptual framework for how to understand stewardship as a relation between humans and the rest of nature, based on three dimensions: care, knowledge and agency. This investigation into stewardship in the urban context uses a social–ecological systems approach to guide the use of mixed theory and methods from social and natural sciences. The thesis is organized in five papers. Paper I reviews defining challenges in managing urban social–ecological systems and proposes that these can more effectively be addressed by collaborative networks where public, civic, other actors contribute unique skills and abilities. Paper II and Paper III study water resource governance in Bengaluru, a city that has become dependent on external sources while its own water bodies become degraded and depleted.Paper II analyzes how locally based ‘lake groups’ are able to affect change through co-management arrangements, reversing decades of centralization and neglect of lakes’ role in Bengaluru’s water supply.Paper III uses social–ecological network analysis to analyze how patterns in lake groups’ engagements and collaborations show better fit with ecological connectivity of lakes.Paper IV employs sense of place methods to explore how personal bonds to a site shapes motivation and goals in waterfront stewardship in New York City. Finally,Paper V reviews literature on stewardship and proposes a conceptual framework to understand and relate different uses and underlying epistemological approaches in the field. In summary, this thesis presents an empirically grounded contribution to how stewardship can be understood as a human–nature relation emergent from a deep sense ofcare and responsibility, knowledge and learning about how to understand social–ecological dynamics, and theagency and skills needed to influence these dynamics in a way that benefits a greater community of humans as others. Here, the care dimension is particularly important as an underappreciated aspect of social–ecological relations, and asset for addressing spatial and temporal misalignment between management institutions and ecosystem. This thesis shows that care for nature does not erode just because green spaces are degraded by human activities – which may be crucial for promoting stewardship in the Anthropocene. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript. Paper 5: Manuscript.</p>

Parmi les nombreuses activités exercées sur les systèmes socio-écologiques littoraux, la pêche récréative a connu un essor important devenant ainsi un enjeu de développement durable. En France, les défauts de gouvernance de l'État dans la gestion du DPM invitent à s'interroger sur la pertinence et la faisabilité d'une co-gestion de ces pratiques de loisir. Ce paradigme, se voulant une alternative à une gestion top-down, prône la participation accrue des populations locales dans la gestion de l'environnement pour améliorer ses résultats. L'île d'Oléron ne déroge pas à ces constats qui sont renforcés par les modifications sociétales spécifiques aux territoires insulaires. Dans le cadre de recherches dont l'objet d'étude est une problématique sociétale, il est approprié de faire appel à une approche interdisciplinaire pour améliorer la pertinence des réponses apportées. Concernant la pêche à pied récréative à l'étrille, les résultats obtenus en biologie et en écologie mettent en évidence des caractéristiques qui semblent indiquer un faible impact potentiel à court comme à long termes de ces perturbations ponctuelles sur les populations locales. D'un point de vue sociétal, la pertinence d'une co-gestion de la pêche récréative est clairement établie par les nombreux conflits d'usages impliquant les pêcheurs récréatifs, le manque de moyens pour gérer la pratique et acquérir des données scientifiques, le manque de concertation, etc. La dynamique de développement du territoire oléronais et les initiatives locales à l'instar des conflits d'usages soutiennent l'idée de l'existence d'une « fenêtre politique » pouvant permettre la mise en place d'une co-gestion de la pratique dans les prochaines années, sous réserve d'une communication suffisante et d'une réelle volonté des acteurs concernés par la gestion de la pratique. / Among several other activities practice on coastal socio-ecological system, recreational fishing ones have significantly increased over the past few years, becoming an issue for sustainable development. In France, the weakness of states governance concerning DPM management, questions the relevancy and feasibility of a co-management policy for these leisure activities. This paradigm, constituting a good substitute for top-down management, recommends an increased participation of local populations for managing environments and improving their outcomes. Oléron Island is thus affected by these observations, which are intensified by societal changes distinguishing island territories. In the current research context, aiming at solving societal problematic, it is relevant to consider an interdisciplinary approach to provide relevant answers. Concerning recreational shellfish gathering targeting the velvet swimming crab, results in biology and ecology highlight some characteristics which should indicate a weak short and long terms potential impact of the disturbances affecting local populations. As regards to societal aspects, the relevancy of co-management is clearly demonstrated by several land-use conflicts, a lack of means to manage the practice and scientific data, the lack of consultation, etc. The territorial dynamic and local initiatives, as well as land-use conflicts, underline the existence of a “political window” which should allow the implementation of a co-management process for recreational fishing in the following years, subject to further efficient communication and a real desire from stakeholders concerned by the management of this practice.

There is an increasing concern for the impact of humans on the environment. Traditionally, ecological models consider human influence as a constant or linearly varying parameter, whereas socioeconomic models and frameworks tend to oversimplify the ecological system. But tackling complex environmental challenges faced by our societies requires interdisciplinary approaches due to the intricate feedbacks between the socioeconomic and ecological systems involved. Thus, models of social-ecological systems couple an ecological system with a socioeconomic system to investigate their interaction in the integrated dynamical system. We define this coupling formally and apply the social-ecological approach to three ecological cases. Indeed, we focus on eutrophication in shallow freshwater lakes, which is a well-known system showing bistability between a clear water state and a turbid polluted state. We also study a model accounting for an aquifer (water stock) and a model accounting for a biotic population exhibiting bistability through an Allee effect. The socioeconomic dynamics is driven by the incentive that agents feel to act in a desirable or undesirable way. This incentive can be represented by a difference in utility, or in payoff, between two strategies that each agent can adopt: agents can cooperate and act in an environment-friendly way, or they can defect and act in an ecologically undesirable way. The agents' motivation includes such factors as the economic cost of their choice, the concern they feel for the environment and conformism to the collective attitude of the human group. Thus, the incentive to cooperate responds to the state of the ecological system and to the agents' collective opinion, and this response can be linear, nonlinear and monotonic, or non-monotonic. When investigating the mathematical form of this response, we find that monotonic non-linear responses may result in additional equilibria, cycles and basins of attraction compared to the linear case. Non-monotonic responses, such as resignation effects, may produce much more complicated nullclines such as a closed nullcline and weaken our ability to anticipate the dynamics of a social-ecological system. Regarding the modelling of the socioeconomic subsystem, the replicator dynamics and the logit best-response dynamics are widely used mathematical formulations from evolutionary game theory. There seems to be little awareness about the impact of choosing one or the other. The replicator dynamics assumes that the socioeconomic subsystem is stationary when all agents adopt the same behaviour, whereas the best-response dynamics assumes that this situation is not stationary. The replicator dynamics has formal game theoretical foundations, whereas best-response dynamics comes from psychology. Recent experiments found that the best-response dynamics explains empirical data better. We find that the two dynamics can produce a different number of equilibria as well as differences in their stability. The replicator dynamics is a limit case of the logit best-response dynamics when agents have an infinite rationality. We show that even generic social-ecological models can show multistability. In many cases, multistability allows for counterintuitive equilibria to emerge, where ecological desirability and socioeconomic desirability are not correlated. This makes generic management recommendations difficult to find and several policies with and without socioeconomic impact should be considered. Even in cases where there is a unique equilibrium, it can lose stability and give rise to sustained oscillations. We can interpret these oscillations in a way similar to the cycles found in classical predator-prey systems. In the lake pollution social-ecological model for instance, the agents' defection increases the lake pollution, which makes agents feel concerned and convince the majority to cooperate. Then, the ecological concern decreases because the lake is not polluted and the incentive to cooperate plummets, so that it becomes more advantageous for the agents to defect again. We show that the oscillations obtained when using the replicator dynamics tend to produce a make-or-break dynamics, where a random perturbation could shift the system to either full cooperation or full defection depending on its timing along the cycle. Management measures may shift the location of the social-ecological system at equilibrium, but also make attractors appear or disappear in the phase plane or change the resilience of stable steady states. The resilience of equilibria relates to basins of attraction and is especially important in the face of potential regime shifts. Sources of uncertainty that should be taken into account for the management of social-ecological systems include multistability and the possibility of counterintuitive equilibria, the wide range of possible policy measures with or without socioeconomic interventions, and the behaviour of human collectives involved, which may be described by different dynamics. Yet, uncertainty coming from the collective behaviour of agents is mitigated if they do not give up or rely on the other agents' efforts, which allows modelling to better inform decision makers.