Skadestånd i gränsöverskridande brottmål är ett ämne som berör frågor om såväl domstols internationella behörighet som frågor om lagval. I uppsatsen har särskilt frågor om behörighet och lagval diskuterats för det fall det enskilda anspråket avskiljs från brottmålet. Är det självklart att svensk lag ska tillämpas på hela brottmålsprocessen eller ska det vara annorlunda vid handläggningen av det enskilda anspråket? Frågan om domstols internationella behörighet uppmärksammas sällan i domstol, medan bestämmelserna i 2 kap. BrB gör det. När domstolen konstaterat att den är behörig enligt BrB har svensk lag, som regel, tillämpats på hela processen. Det är något som ifrågasätts i uppsatsen. Uppsatsen har också tagit ställning till frågan om vem som ansvarar för att utländsk rätt ska uppmärksammas. Vidare har uppsatsen belyst problemet att tillämpningen av skadeståndsrättsliga principer varierar beroende på vilken myndighet som handlägger frågan. Sammanfattningsvis är det min uppfattning att lagvalsfrågor inte hanteras enligt gällande rätt. Ett annat problem som uppmärksammas är att EU:s Bryssel I a-förordning och Rom II-förordning får något av en fakultativ ställning i svensk rätt i så kallade blandade mål – det vill säga när domstolen handlägger brottmålet och tvistemålet gemensamt i en och samma rättegång. Uppsatsen illustrerar att svensk nationell lagstiftning i fråga om behörighet och lagval behöver ses över för att bättre samspela med unionsrättsliga bestämmelser i skadeståndsfrågor i gränsöverskridande brottmål. En av slutsatserna i uppsatsen är att de oklarheter som föreligger i dessa avseenden leder till rättsosäkerhet. / This master thesis illustrates and analyzes the various problems which might occur when dealing with questions of damages in cross-border criminal cases. In the Nordic legal systems the tradition is to join the private claim with the criminal case and handle them together in the criminal trial procedure. In Sweden the criminal case is decided under the Swedish Criminal Code (brottsbalken, SFS 1962:700) while the question of indemnity liability is decided under the Tort Liability Act (skadeståndslagen, SFS 1972:207) which is a part of the civil procedural law. In modern days Internet is often used as an aid to commit crimes. The Internet-related crimes have increased during the past decades. The perpetrator in one country can, by using Internet, commit crimes towards victims in other countries. Accordingly, I have analyzed the following questions: How should the courts’ international jurisdiction be decided when dealing with a private claim in a criminal case? Furthermore, which law is applicable when deciding the private claim? Other issues concern under what circumstances a court can separate the private claim from the criminal case. My analysis may shed some light on the needs of updating national regulations in these questions. Some of the issues this master thesis focuses on are that the Brussels Ibis Regulation and Rome II Regulation is treated as optional law instead of non-optional law. These instruments are to have priority as they originate in EU law. This master thesis shows that these issues must be dealt with in order to have confidence in the legal system and also to defend the rule of law such as legal security and foreseeability.

Abduction / Adultery / Assault / Constitution / Defamation / Delict / Grounds of justification / Indigenous law / Intention / Legal maxims / Legal system / Legal values / Living law / Malicious damage to property / Negligence / Rape / Remedies / Seduction / Theft / Trespass / Text in Afrikaans, abstract in Afrikaans and English / In die studie word bepaal of die verskynsel wat algemeen as delik getipeer word, bekend is aan die inheemse reg en of daar na inheemse deliktereg in die gewone sin van die woord verwys kan word. Aangesien die lewende reg van 'n groep beinvloed kan word deur die mate van verwestersing wat plaasgevind het, is 'n mikrostudie in 'n semistedelike gebied gedoen ten einde te bepaal of eie waarde-oordele verplaas en vervang word wanneer daar van Westerse regsinstellings gebruik gemaak word. lnligting is ingesamel deur middel van gesprekvoering met 'n paneel van kundige mans en vrouens en is getoets aan beskikbare literatuur. Daar is gepoog om nie net die regsbeginsels te identifiseer en te omskryf nie, maar om ook kennis te neem van daardie kultuurinstellings en sosiale prosesse wat buite die reg funksioneer. Alhoewel dit moontlik is om die algemene beginsels van 'n delik te identifiseer asook die verskeie subjektiewe regte waarop inbreuk gemaak kan word, moet die eiesoortige aard daarvan deurentyd in gedagte gehou en verreken word teen die ongespesialiseerde aard van die inheemse reg. Daar is gevind dat die inheemse deliktereg van die bestudeerde groep duidelike tekens toon van aanpassings by nuwe omstandighede, maar tog met behoud van beproefde regsbeginsels en menslike waardes. / This study ascertains whether the phenomenon typified as indigenous law of delict is known to indigenous law and whether reference may be made to indigenous law of delict in the usual sense of the word. As the living law may be influenced by the measure of westernisation that took place, a micro study has been carried out in a semi-urban area in order to ascertain whether own value judgments are replaced or substituted when Western legal institutions are used. Information has been collected by way of interviews with a panel of knowledgeable men and women and controlled by reference to available literature. An attempt was made not only to identify and define legal principles, but also to take note of those cultural institutions and social processes functioning outside the law. Although it is possible to identify the general principles of delict as well as several subjective rights that may be infringed, the peculiar nature of delict must be borne in mind and set off against the unspecialised nature of indigenous law. The indigenous law of delict shows clear signs of adaptation to new circumstances, but there is evidence of the retention of proven legal principles and human values. / Private Law / L.L. D.

130 ABSTRACT This Master's degree thesis deals with the problematics of the military criminal law in the Czechoslovak Republic between 1918 and 1938. I have chosen this theme for several reasons. First of these reasons is, that this subject mingles two legal disciplines - legal history and criminal law. Concurrently it is a topic, that has not yet been widely written up. The reason is that in both law disciplines combined in the theme of interwar criminal law, it is a marginal area of interest. Existing works in most cases focus only on a constituent parts of the problematics. In the second group of works the topic was chosen too widely and the character of resulting outputs was enumeratives, withnout providing context. The purpose of this tesis is to provide a global view on the matter of our military criminal law in the begining of 20th century and within this view then further focus on its dominant elements. The work is based mainly on the legislation effective in the given period, and the commented wordings. Another valuable source for the elaboration of the thesis were historical publications, although recent papers were not excluded. On several occasions the work marginally mentiones the comparison with the interwar general criminal law. In the topics of the military criminal law, whose legislation or...

以過失責任主義為基本原則之侵權行為法 ， 於十九世紀達到鼎盛時期，但在這個時期業已開始受到壓力。此項壓力主要來自工業災害和鐵路交通事故。立法者所採取的對策為制訂特別法，例如一八三八年十一月三日之普魯士鐵路法，或另創補償制度 ， 例如英國一八九七年之勞工補償法。換言之，即立法者一方面堅守過失責任原則，在他方面則例外地就特別損害事故承認無過失責任，或將之納入社會安全體制內。然而，由於意外事故急劇增加，為適應社會需要 ， 無過失責任制度漸次擴張，迄至今日，已成為與過失責任具有相同地位之損害賠償歸責原則。本論文即以在無過失責任中居於主流地位之危險責任為主題，探究其理論構成及發展趨勢。 本論文在結構上分為六章廿一節，擬以比較法學、法律歷史學、法律社會學、法律經濟學等方法，探討危險責任之理論及其發展，並從哲學、比較法、經濟、程序法及社會等觀點，研究及檢討危險責任之各項問題。危險責任在沿革上是為解決過失責任主義之缺陷而生的，可以說過失責任是危險責任的母親，也是他的反面教材。然而，在危險責任無法填補被害人之損失時，過失原則亦得作為補充制度，並在危險責任法制無特別規定時，借用其原理原則，以便利其解釋適用，故應可謂，危險責任之所以為世人所矚目，乃因其站在過失責任主義的巨人肩上。是以，本文對於過失責任的基本法制和流變，亦儘可能詳予論述，因為危險責任並不是一個孤立的法制度，他和其他歸責原理中的民事責任是相互輔助而合作並存的，他們雖然各有其特色和不同點，但其卻有一個共同的目的，那就是促進文化，謀求人類力量的最高發揮，這也正是立法者、司法者和法學者的職責所在。 危險責任是以危險為特徵的推定過失或無過失責任，所牽涉的領域和知識甚多，光是產品責任的資料，直可用「堆積如山」來形容，如何在相當的篇幅內整理文獻並提出自己的看法或見解 ， 就一個這麼大的題目而言，自有其困難度。這篇論文並不欲標新立異，因為我一直走在前人幫我開闢的路上，惟希望本論文能以我國危險責任法制的補充者自居，並發揮拋磚引玉的功能，集合法學者的智慧，使我國成為先進的法治國家。作者才疏學淺，本文內容如有謬誤失當之處，尚祈方家不吝指正為禱。 第一章 危險責任概論••••••••••••••••1 第一節 「危險」的意義••••••••••••••1 第二節 民事上危險責任概述••••••••••••1 第三節 公法上危險責任概述••••••••••••5 第二章 從歸責原理之變動論危險責任之發展••••••11 第一節 過失責任主義的基本法制••••••••••11 第二節 過失客觀化、違法視為過失、與過失推定•••24 第三節 危險責任在無過失責任中之地位•••••••36 第四節 危險責任在歸責原理中之地位••••••••42 第三章 主要國家的危險責任法制•••••••••••46 第一節 英國法••••••••••••••••••46 第二節 美國法••••••••••••••••••48 第三節 德國法••••••••••••••••••51 第四節 法國法••••••••••••••••••68 第五節 日本法••••••••••••••••••71 第四章 我國侵權行為及危險責任法制之沿革與發展•••80 第一節 西方侵權行為與危險責任法制之繼受•••••80 第二節 我國危險責任法制之類型••••••••••81 第三節 最近立法的趨勢••••••••••••••101 第四節 預防和分散危險的輔助制度•••••••••112 第五章 危險責任法制之分析•••••••••••••132 第一節 哲學的觀點••••••••••••••••132 第二節 比較法的觀點•••••••••••••••134 第三節 經濟的觀點••••••••••••••••136 第四節 程序法的觀點•••••••••••••••140 第五節 社會的觀點••••••••••••••••148 第六章 結論••••••••••••••••••••157 參考資料••••••••••••••••••••••160

This article addresses the question of whether extreme weather events should form the basis for individuals or even the States, may be exempted from complying with its legal obligations.The old, but still very viable institution of force majeure can empower both companies and nations to absolve themselves of their responsibilities and duties. However, in a world where human-induced climate change is proven, could we say that such disasters are truly«natural»? Does it make sense, from a legal and factual matter, that they continue to allow the parties to be exempt from liability when modern science has shown that in all probability people, not some enigmatic power, have caused most universally of the problems that hold us harmless looking?Force majeure is based on the idea that the «man» somehow is separate from «nature». This article challenges this idea and argues that, in many cases, no longer makes sense to apply the institution of force majeure. At least, judges should be very careful in doing so for reasons of public policy and allocation of risks. In addition, the contracting parties must have enough caution to claim that they may be able to exempt themselves from future liability clauses appealing «force majeure». / Este artículo aborda la pregunta sobre si los eventos de clima extremo deben servir de base para que los particulares o, incluso los Estados, puedan eximirse de cumplir con sus obligaciones legales.La antigua, pero aún muy viable, institución de la fuerza mayor, puede facultar tanto a las empresas como a los Estados-Nación a eximirse de sus responsabilidades y deberes. Sin embargo, en un mundo donde el cambio climático antropogénico está probado,¿podríamos decir que tales desastres son verdaderamente «naturales»? ¿Acaso tiene sentido, desde un punto de vista legal y fáctico, que se les siga permitiendo a las partes eximirse de responsabilidad legal cuando la ciencia moderna ha demostrado con toda probabilidad que, las personas -no algún misterioso poder universal- han ocasionado la mayoría de los problemas por los que buscamos eximirnos de responsabilidad?La fuerza mayor se basa en la idea de que el «hombre», de alguna manera, se encuentra separado de la «naturaleza». Este artículo cuestiona esta idea y argumenta que, en muchos casos, ya no tiene sentido aplicar la institución de la fuerza mayor. Al menos, los jueces deben ser muy cuidadosos al hacerlo por razones de política pública y asignación de riesgos, así como las partes contratantes deben tener la suficiente precaución al pensar o pretender que pueden ser capaces de eximirse de responsabilidad futura invocando cláusulas de «fuerza mayor».

Reasonableness as a concept used in determining delictual liability or liability in tort law, is either embraced or perceived by some as frustrating. It is a normative concept which is inextricably linked with the concepts of fairness, justice, equity, public policy and the values of the community. These concepts assist in providing value judgements in determining liability. It is apparent from this study that the influence of reasonableness is predominantly implicit on the French law of delict, but more explicit on the South African law of delict and Anglo-American tort law. Its influence varies with respect to each element of tort or delictual liability. In order to hold a person liable for a delict or tort, it is only reasonable that all the elements of a delict or tort are present. Common to all the jurisdictions studied in this thesis is the idea of striking a balance between the defendant’s interests promoted, the plaintiff’s interests adversely affected and the interests of society. Where liability is based on fault, the reasonableness of conduct is called into question. In respect of causation whichever test or theory is used, what must ultimately be determined is whether according to the facts of the case, it is reasonable to impute liability on the defendant for the factually caused consequences. Whether loss or harm is required, assumed or not required, the question of the appropriate remedy or compensation which is reasonable under the circumstances is called into question. In South African and Anglo-American law, the multiple uses of the standards of the reasonable person, reasonable foreseeability of harm, reasonable preventability of harm, whether it is reasonable to impose an element of liability, or whether it is reasonable to impute liability, often cause confusion and uncertainty. At times, the role of these criteria with regard to a specific element may be valid and amplified while, at other times, their role is diminished and controversial. However, there is nothing wrong with the concept of reasonableness itself; indeed, it is a necessary and useful concept in law. Rather, it is the way that it is interpreted and applied in determining liability that is problematic. / Private Law / LL. D.

Abduction / Adultery / Assault / Constitution / Defamation / Delict / Grounds of justification / Indigenous law / Intention / Legal maxims / Legal system / Legal values / Living law / Malicious damage to property / Negligence / Rape / Remedies / Seduction / Theft / Trespass / Text in Afrikaans, abstract in Afrikaans and English / In die studie word bepaal of die verskynsel wat algemeen as delik getipeer word, bekend is aan die inheemse reg en of daar na inheemse deliktereg in die gewone sin van die woord verwys kan word. Aangesien die lewende reg van 'n groep beinvloed kan word deur die mate van verwestersing wat plaasgevind het, is 'n mikrostudie in 'n semistedelike gebied gedoen ten einde te bepaal of eie waarde-oordele verplaas en vervang word wanneer daar van Westerse regsinstellings gebruik gemaak word. lnligting is ingesamel deur middel van gesprekvoering met 'n paneel van kundige mans en vrouens en is getoets aan beskikbare literatuur. Daar is gepoog om nie net die regsbeginsels te identifiseer en te omskryf nie, maar om ook kennis te neem van daardie kultuurinstellings en sosiale prosesse wat buite die reg funksioneer. Alhoewel dit moontlik is om die algemene beginsels van 'n delik te identifiseer asook die verskeie subjektiewe regte waarop inbreuk gemaak kan word, moet die eiesoortige aard daarvan deurentyd in gedagte gehou en verreken word teen die ongespesialiseerde aard van die inheemse reg. Daar is gevind dat die inheemse deliktereg van die bestudeerde groep duidelike tekens toon van aanpassings by nuwe omstandighede, maar tog met behoud van beproefde regsbeginsels en menslike waardes. / This study ascertains whether the phenomenon typified as indigenous law of delict is known to indigenous law and whether reference may be made to indigenous law of delict in the usual sense of the word. As the living law may be influenced by the measure of westernisation that took place, a micro study has been carried out in a semi-urban area in order to ascertain whether own value judgments are replaced or substituted when Western legal institutions are used. Information has been collected by way of interviews with a panel of knowledgeable men and women and controlled by reference to available literature. An attempt was made not only to identify and define legal principles, but also to take note of those cultural institutions and social processes functioning outside the law. Although it is possible to identify the general principles of delict as well as several subjective rights that may be infringed, the peculiar nature of delict must be borne in mind and set off against the unspecialised nature of indigenous law. The indigenous law of delict shows clear signs of adaptation to new circumstances, but there is evidence of the retention of proven legal principles and human values. / Private Law / L.L. D.

Medical expenses refer to all medical and related expenditure reasonably incurred in respect of bodily injuries sustained. This then constitutes the primary loss in incidences of bodily injuries. However, it is accepted that bodily injuries infringe in the main the non-patrimonial aspects of the individual’s bodily integrity which is a personality right. Notwithstanding this trite provision of our law, the dissertation contends that medical expenses as a head of damages is inherently patrimonial. In essence, the true nature of medical expenses as a loss that ultimately affects both the patrimonial and non-patrimonial interests of the individual, is considered. Furthermore, the dissertation analyses the assessment and quantification mechanisms in our law, and makes a comparative study with the corresponding positions in England and Australia. The intended outcome of this dissertation is to provide clear guidelines for the award of damages, particularly where future loss is involved. / Private Law / LLM

Les mécanismes de soft law ont joué un rôle central dans le développement de la notion actuelle de la responsabilité des entreprises transnationales en droits de l’homme telle qu’elle est définie dans les Principes directeurs relatifs aux entreprises et aux droits de l’homme, une initiative approuvé par le Conseil des droits de l’homme des Nations unies en juin 2011. La responsabilité des entreprises de respecter les droits de l’homme, telle qu’elle a été conçue par le Représentant spécial, repose sur les attentes de la société plutôt que sur une obligation juridique. Cela signifie que les entreprises « devraient éviter de porter atteinte aux droits de l’homme d’autrui et remédier aux incidences négatives sur les droits de l’homme dans lesquelles elles ont une part ». Les limites de cette approche sont importantes à moyen et à long terme. Même si l’approche pragmatique adopté par le Représentant spécial a permis de surmonter le débat au sein de la communauté internationale autour du Projet de normes sur la responsabilité en matière de droits de l’homme des sociétés transnationales et autres entreprises, elle a aussi éloigné la possibilité d’élaborer un instrument international imposant aux entreprises transnationales des obligations contraignantes en droits de l’homme. Construire la notion de la responsabilité des entreprises transnationales en matière de droits de l’homme uniquement sur les attentes de la société semble insuffisant et dangereux face aux victimes des abus de ces acteurs économiques. La responsabilité de respecter les droits de l’homme, telle que définie aujourd’hui, renforce l’acceptation d’un système international où les entreprises transnationales sont encouragées mais pas obligées à respecter les droits de l’homme, une solution qui laisse les victimes des abus dépourvues de toute action en justice et de réparation. L’objet de cette thèse est de présenter de manière succincte l’évolution de la problématique complexe de la responsabilité des entreprises transnationales du secteur énergétique en matière de droit international des droits de l’homme et de droit international humanitaire depuis son origine jusqu’à nos jours, ainsi que de comprendre les principales limites de l’approche actuelle à la question, afin d’envisager des potentielles solutions. / Soft law mechanisms have played a central role in developing the current notion of the responsibility of transnational corporations in human rights as defined in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, an initiative approved by the United Nations Human Rights Council in June 2011. Corporate responsibility to respect human rights, as defined by the Special Representative, is based on social expectations rather than on legal obligations. It means that companies should “avoid prejudice to the rights of others and to address adverse impacts on human rights in which they are involved”. The limitations of this approach are important in medium and long term. Although the pragmatic approach adopted by the Special Representative has closed the international community debate on the Draft Norms on the responsibility for human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises, it also ends the chances of developing an international instrument requiring binding obligations in human rights for transnational corporations. Setting the notion of the responsibility of transnational corporations in human rights exclusively on social expectations seems unsatisfactory and dangerous towards victims of violations committed by these economic actors. Responsibility to respect human rights as defined today reinforces the acceptance of a system where transnational corporations are encouraged but are not compelled to respect human rights, a solution that leaves victims of abuse devoid of any legal action and redress. The purpose of this PhD thesis is to present briefly the evolution of the responsibility of transnational corporations in the energy sector in human rights and international humanitarian law from its origins to our days, as well as to understand the main limitations of the current concept in order to explore potential solutions.

Medical expenses refer to all medical and related expenditure reasonably incurred in respect of bodily injuries sustained. This then constitutes the primary loss in incidences of bodily injuries. However, it is accepted that bodily injuries infringe in the main the non-patrimonial aspects of the individual’s bodily integrity which is a personality right. Notwithstanding this trite provision of our law, the dissertation contends that medical expenses as a head of damages is inherently patrimonial. In essence, the true nature of medical expenses as a loss that ultimately affects both the patrimonial and non-patrimonial interests of the individual, is considered. Furthermore, the dissertation analyses the assessment and quantification mechanisms in our law, and makes a comparative study with the corresponding positions in England and Australia. The intended outcome of this dissertation is to provide clear guidelines for the award of damages, particularly where future loss is involved. / Private Law / LLM