La reconfiguration dynamique d'un logiciel peut être un auxiliaire utile pour adapter et maintenir des systèmes informatiques. Dans la plupart des approches, le système doit être interrompu pour que la reconfiguration puisse être exécutée. Cette interruption ne peut convenir aux systèmes temps-réel : il est nécessaires que les contraintes temporelles soient respectées, même lorsque le système est en train d'être reconfiguré.<br />Notre approche se base sur OSA+, un middleware temps-réel. Notre objectif principal est d'être capable de reconfigurer un (ou plusieurs) service lorsque le système est en fonction, avec un temps de non-réponse prévisible et prédéfini, c'est-à-dire un temps pendant lequel le système ne réagit pas à cause de la reconfiguration.<br />Trois approches différentes concernant le blocage ou le non-blocage d'un service sont présentées. Ces approches peuvent être utilisées pour réaliser un compromis entre le temps de reconfiguration et le temps de non-réponse.

En 1957, l’État est l’organisateur du service public postal en France à travers son administration centrale. Cette même année est signé un traité à Rome entre six États européens autour de l’idée de marché commun avec délégation de souveraineté.Le service public postal et l’Europe du traité de Rome vont, tout d’abord, évoluer parallèlement. Mais, au début des années 1980, le contexte politique, économique et technologique change et l’Europe se saisit de la question postale ; d’une phase d’ignorance, on entre alors dans une phase de confrontation : l’Europe soumet le service postal au droit commun de la concurrence et remet en cause le monopole, organisation traditionnelle du service postal. Par ailleurs, le service public postal organique est transformé : La Poste, exploitant public doté de la personnalité juridique est née. Progressivement, la logique de confrontation laisse place à une phase de concertation entre l’Europe du traité de Rome et les États membres qui donne naissance à plusieurs directives. Ces dernières placent en leur cœur le service universel postal. En 2012, la libéralisation du service postal devient totale : il n’existe plus de monopole légal.Cette ouverture du marché est concomitante avec la révolution numérique. Ainsi, dans ce contexte de bouleversements idéologiques, technologiques et économiques, le service public postal connaît des évolutions significatives tant dans sa forme – La Poste devient une société anonyme – que dans sa mission : pour répondre aux nouveaux besoins d’intérêt général, raison d’être du service public, le service public postal est reconfiguré. / In 1957, the State is the organiser of the public postal service in France through its central administration. That same year, a treaty was signed in Rome between six European States around the idea of a common market with a delegation of sovereignty. At first, the public postal service and the Europe of the Treaty of Rome develop separately. But in the early 1980s, the political, economic and technological context evolves and Europe decides to take an active interest in the matter of the postal service. After a phase of disinterest in postal matters, we enter in a phase of confrontation; Europe submits the postal service to the competition law: monopoly, the traditional organisation of the postal service, is challenged. Moreover, the French public postal service is transformed: La Poste, independent public operator is born. Following the period of confrontation, a period of dialogue follows, bringing together the Europe of the Treaty of Rome and the States members to write the postal law. Several guidelines are adopted, focused in particular on the universal postal service. By 2012, the process of liberalisation of the postal service is complete: there is no legal monopoly in Europe. This new openness is concomitant with the digital era. The postal service must now continue to adapt to this new ideological, technological and economical context: in its form – La Poste becomes a public limited company – as well as in its mission to serve the public interest, the raison d’être of the public service, so the public postal service is reconfigured.

Thesis (M.A. (Communication studies)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / The rates of Internet uses are still devastatingly low especially in developing countries and South Africa is no exception. However, South Africa has had a state policy commitment to attain Internet access for those who have been unconnected in the post Apartheid era (Electronic Communication Act, No 36 of 2005). The problem is that the policy application has been one-sided, only focusing on providing public fixed Internet access through community libraries, Thusong service centres, hospitals and public schools. While this effort is credible, it does little to address the upsurge of mobile Internet access that is increasingly characterising the digital age. The age of digital mobility represents a shift from fixed public Internet access to individualised mobile Internet access through mobile phones. However, the high prices of mobile Internet data make Internet access exclusionary in South Africa, making the needy persons to remain outside of the digital revolution. This study explored issues regarding the high cost of Internet data in South Africa and suggests ways on how universal service and access policy can be formulated to focus on individualised mobile Internet connection. Using a mixed method approach, a convenience sampling technique was used to recruit 200 University of Limpopo students to participate in a survey, and a purposive sampling technique was used for selecting one official from the Independent Communication Authority of South Africa (ICASA) and another official from the Universal Service and Access Agency of South Africa (USAASA) to participate in the standardised semi structured interview. The results indicate that unless the universal service and access policy focuses on addressing the individualised mobile Internet access for needy persons, tapping the benefits that the Internet provides will remain out of reach for many South African youths.

The rapid emergence of broadband, or always-on Internet, during the course of the last decade, has increased the importance of the so- called information society in urban and industrialized societies world- wide. Liberalized information and communications technology (ICT) market forces worldwide have however failed to supply these services to rural and low-income regions resulting in the so-called digital divide. One financial tool, adopted by many developing nations to drive broadband investments in underserved areas, is the universal service fund (USF), a public fund mainly levying its resources from ICT market players. USFs have previously been used to fund telecom networks but with the growing importance of broadband, structural and regulatory discrepancies are preventing USFs from adequately supporting broadband investments. Currently, little up-to-date academic theory exists within this field; thus, this thesis serves to outline principles that policy-makers and regulators need to consider when designing or reforming universal service fund mechanisms. The research is based on a series of qualitative country case studies investigating policy, procedural, and executional aspects related to USFs and rural broadband. Publicly available material has been complemented with interviews of stakeholders from various levels to establish a holistic empirical base upon which conclusions have been drawn. The conclusions outline principles governing public involvement in USFs, roles played by various stakeholders in the broadband ecosystem, and strategies for rural broadband network deployment. / Framfarten av bredband under det senaste årtiondet har ökat vikten av det så kallade informationssamhället i de industrialiserade och urbaniserade samhällen. Marknadskrafterna inom den liberaliserade informations- och kommunikationsindustrin har dock misslyckats med att göra dess tjänster tillgängliga till glesbefolkade och låginkomstregioner, vilket har lett till en digital klyfta. Ett finansiellt hjälpmedel som många utvecklingsländer har anammat för att påskynda bredbandsinvesteringar i regioner med få bredbandsuppkopplingar är fonder för samhällsomfattande tjänster (USF), som är en offentlig fond vilken får den största delen av sitt kapital genom en pålaga på intäkterna från aktörer inom informations- och kommunikationsindustrin. USF:er har tidigare använts för att finansiera telekomnätverk, men i takt med att bredbandets ökande genomslag i samhället har strukturella och regleringsmässiga problem med USF:erna uppdagats vilka hindrar dem från att effektivt stödja bredbandsinvesteringar. För närvarande finns lite akademisk teori på området, och sålunda syftar denna uppsatts till att tillhandahålla principer vilka beslutsfattare och regulatorer bör efterfölja vid utformning eller reformering av mekanismer för samhällsomfattande tjänster för bredband. Arbetet baseras på en serie kvalitativa fallstudier av länder med policy, procedurella och verkställande aspekter kopplade till USF:er i områden med få bredbandsuppkopplingar i fokus. Material tillgängligt för allmänheten har kompletterats med intervjuer av intressenter från olika organisations- och samhällsnivåer för att skapa en heltäckande empiri på området från vilka slutsatser har dragits. Slutsatserna innehåller principer som rör offentlig inblandning i USF:er, roller för samhällets olika intressenter i ett ekosystem för bredband, samt strategier för utbyggnad av bredbandsnätverk i glesbefolkade områden.

Countries worldwide have reformed or are in the process of reforming their telecommunications industries. The reform process is characterised by new laws and policies, and the establishment of regulatory agencies to implement reforms in a new dynamic global environment. Regulatory reform has emerged as an important policy area worldwide. In South Africa, the regulatory environment is undergoing an overhaul to create a framework for vibrant competition and consequently affordable services. The aim of this study is to gain a deeper insight into the capability and state of readiness of the regulatory authority to implement its constitutional mandate: to regulate the industry, create conditions for competition, and to achieve socio-political objectives. The case study research design was used. The methodology include: in-depth interviews, qualitative content analysis and documentation. The report concludes that the regulator lacks behind global best practices in terms of crucial policy and regulatory aspects to successfully implement its mandate. / Communication Science / M. A. (International Communication)

The present article aims to review the development of universal access to potable water in Peru, for this, firstly it analyses the regulations applicable to potable water and sanitation, the main actors of the activity and universal access policy. Subsequently, it explains how the access of all users to potable water in urban and rural areas, respectively is planned. / En el presente artículo se da cuenta del desarrollo del acceso universal al agua potable en el Perú. Para conseguir ello, previamente, se analiza el régimen jurídico del agua potable y saneamiento, los principales actores de la actividad y la política de acceso universal. Esto permite, posteriormente, explicar cómo es que se ha previsto conseguir el acceso de todos los usuarios al agua potable en los sectores urbanos y rurales, respectivamente.

Countries worldwide have reformed or are in the process of reforming their telecommunications industries. The reform process is characterised by new laws and policies, and the establishment of regulatory agencies to implement reforms in a new dynamic global environment. Regulatory reform has emerged as an important policy area worldwide. In South Africa, the regulatory environment is undergoing an overhaul to create a framework for vibrant competition and consequently affordable services. The aim of this study is to gain a deeper insight into the capability and state of readiness of the regulatory authority to implement its constitutional mandate: to regulate the industry, create conditions for competition, and to achieve socio-political objectives. The case study research design was used. The methodology include: in-depth interviews, qualitative content analysis and documentation. The report concludes that the regulator lacks behind global best practices in terms of crucial policy and regulatory aspects to successfully implement its mandate. / Communication Science / M. A. (International Communication)

This dissertation contributes to the literature and current discussions on the European postal markets and the universal service obligations (USO). It consists of three independent chapters.<p><p>In chapter one, we investigate the consumers' preferences for various kinds of postal services. As such, we begin by reviewing the market and regulatory conditions for Europe and for our case study, Belgium. Then using data provided by the incumbent provider, the Belgian post (Bpost), we estimate demand price elasticities. The data comprises customer transactional information on letter mail, direct mail, parcels & express services, press delivery and value added services for the 2008-2009 period. These categories constitute not only the important lines of services that Bpost offers to its clients but also the main segments that constitute the whole Belgian postal market. As such, and using standard methods, we estimate for each service an equation that explains demand by prices, product varieties (i.e. mixes or combinations of volume, weight, priority and destination, inter alia), income, regulation proxies and other socioeconomic variables. The estimated price elasticities for regulated and partially regulated services are around -1.1, whereas for unregulated segments they fluctuate between -2.1 and -2.8. The lowest price elasticity is obtained for direct mail services (-1.0); the highest ones are associated with value added services (-2.1) and registered mail (-3.3). Price elasticities may be influenced by the cyclical effects during the period of analysis. Therefore, elasticities are higher when compared with the empirical evidence obtained for other countries and through the various methodologies applied over the last decades. The fact that technological substitutes, such as expenditures on telephony and internet access for daily and administrative mail services and, radio and television advertising for direct mail services, could not be accounted for (because there were no data available) may however be considered as a major limitation for the scope of our results. <p><p>In the second chapter, we explore theoretically the effects of the USO on unregulated markets. In particular, we are interested in investigating its welfare effects when the provision of services cannot be technologically separated. We present a model in which there is an incumbent who provides two services: a universal service and a non-USO service, the latter opened to competition. This is the case of letter mail and direct (or bulk) mail, services which have quite different purposes and regulatory frameworks (i.e. the former is fully regulated whereas the latter is liberalized under the current European Internal Market framework), but are jointly produce at some stages of the postal value chain. The USO is simplified to two dimensions, affordability and quality, implemented as a price cap and a minimum quality standard (MQS) for the provision of letter mail services. The latter involves the technological aspects that we are interested in. We find that the definition of the USO plays an important role in organizing markets that are open to competition. When it imposes few quality requirements (low MQS), the incumbent is not cost efficient enough to provide the high-quality variant of bulk mail, allowing its competitors to cream-skim the segment. However, because there are cost economies, the firm's participation in the segment yields a higher average quality of mail services at lower prices. When the USO is too comprehensive (high MQS), the incumbent exhibits large cost economies that ensure a dominant position in the provision of bulk mail services. Consumers are worse off as competition induces too much service differentiation in order to make profitable the provision. Relaxing the definition of the USO mitigates the competitive advantage of the USP and so, yields improvements in welfare. In the absence of access costs, firms will find profitable to participate in the bulk mail segment. However, foreclosure happens if the USO induces the incumbent to exhibit significant fixed costs. Therefore, the USP may end up as the sole supplier of bulk mail services if the definition of the USO imposes too many quality requirements (high MQS). In that case, the authority must balance the welfare gains of defining USO with the welfare losses of the consumers of the contested service. <p><p>Finally, in the third chapter we consider the ownership aspect of the provision of universal services as an incentive to introduce competition. One can further segment the provision between services for customers located in high-cost areas and services for customers located in low-cost areas. Additionally, under the current EU legislation, the supply is divided between upstream activities (e.g. collection and sorting) and downstream activities (i.e. delivery). The provision of upstream activities in high-cost areas remains in hands of the incumbent firm or the owner of the downstream (delivery) network. The upstream provision in low-cost areas is open to competition, but a retailer may be vertically integrated/separated or legally unbundled with the downstream firm. Legal unbundling means, in our model, that the downstream firm and one upstream firm located in the low-cost area belong legally to the same entity entitled to all profits, whom does not have full control rights over the firms' decisions. That is to say, upstream activities and the downstream services will be managed separately under the same ownership. In this framework we analyze the firm's boundaries in terms of competition development and welfare. We implement two criteria to answer questions like, does vertical separation promotes competition (entry of firms) while covers a larger demand than vertical integration? Does vertical integration demand less public funds to cover demand? Does legal unbundling is worse than ownership separation to promote competition? The first criterion is the probability of entry (of the potential upstream firm), which we determine for each modes of ownership. The second criterion is the cost of public funds. It is implemented by defining a loss function as the difference between the expected consumer surplus when the downstream firm chooses an access fee that maximizes its profits and the consumer surplus when access is priced at marginal cost. The use of both criteria let us conclude that efficient entry occurs when the downstream firm is vertically separated or legally unbundled of the retailer providing services in the low-cost area. However, it is under legal unbundling that the access charge takes its lowest value. The highest cost of public transfers is obtained when firms are vertically separated, but the lowest one is attained when firms are legally unbundled. Therefore legal unbundling constitutes the preferred organizational form to induce competition and to reduce the cost of public funds. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The study sought to explore technology challenges faced by some rural women in Intsika-Yethu and Emalahleni local municipalities, under the Chris Hani District Municipality, in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Available literature reveals that some rural women in South Africa and other developing parts of the world face technology challenges. The study is qualitative and focuses on two municipalities. Thirty-two women participated in the study. Data were collected through in-depth interviews and focus group interviews. Data were presented, analysed and discussed according to the themes derived from the sub-research questions. It emerged from the study that while most women in both municipalities were aware of ICT, they are however facing ICT access challenges in most areas of the municipalities. The findings do not depict the South African government national ICT policy goals which realises the importance of technology in the integration of services for the development of rural areas. Designing intervention programs for secondary school girls and some rural women, as well as monitoring and evaluating ICT programs in rural areas are recommended. / Communication Science / MA ( Communication)

過去電信事業強調無論任何一端用戶透過電話機、傳輸線路、交換機等網路連接至另一端用戶，進行點對點(end to end)語音或數據之通信時，基於網路不可分割之特性，進行整體固定網路設備投資相當龐大，且因具規模經濟特性而形成自然獨占；加以其多屬民生攸關之公用事業，又須具備一定之服務品質及可負擔之合理價格，始能提供不論居住何處之全國民眾使用，故大多由政府主導經營。 　　然隨著電信自由化來臨，民國八十五年七月一日電信解制，分為監理電信業務之電信總局及國營事業之中華電信公司，確立監管架構及電信業務開放以引進競爭市場。惟為避免新進業者會對更多需求及更可獲利的城市地區首先提供服務，而忽略了鄉村偏遠地區，形成吸脂作用(Cream skimming)。故顯然電信自由化後，儘管商業利益的考量是競爭市場存續的重要因素之一，然而為避免關切公共服務的精神隨之而消失，那麼政府如何適度藉入以求得其間的平衡性，這應屬必要的。 　　基本上，應以國民基本通信之概念考量普及服務之範圍，同時應基於公平及合理的原則下，以負擔得起且日常生活中有必要的電信服務；然由於在公平的、合理的、負擔得起、有必要性等充分條件下，仍須加上一定的「服務品質」為必要條件，才能使普及服務的精神顯露，特別在隨著電信科技發展、社會環境變遷及民眾需求，仍須作階段性不同之定義，才能符合普及服務的真正目的。 　　因此，本論文採用文獻探討、政策德菲法(Delphi method)及實例探討，從管制理論的基礎，說明管制因環境之所需，尤其當電信自由化之初，引入市場競爭之同時，適時的管制對於公平的競爭是有需要的；另再參酌美國、英國、澳洲、香港及法國等先進國家之電信普及服務機制，透過美國、英國、澳洲及香港等國家之電信監理機構之網站，及相關電信自由化之文獻，蒐集到各國對普及服務相關之管理方式與法規規定，歸納出各國對普及服務目標之界定，普及服務之提供者，成本計算方式，分攤普及服務之義務者及分攤方式等，再進行整理、分析與比較，嚐試提出一個適合國情的普及服務制度，並對實務執行所面對的問題提出建議，以供主管機關參考。 　　本論文結論重點為，除建立一套含理論及實務運作的電信普及服務機制外，為發現整理出相關問題如：(1)「電信事業普及服務基金」非為政府基金之管理，是否須要編列年度業務計畫及預算書，值得商榷。(2)就商業利益考量，固網業者收取申裝市內電話之「界外工料費」應無不可，然是否能適用普及服務補助的問題。(3)易將普及服務基金視為另一個社會安全或防災救助的課題，扭曲其設立之精神。(4)提供普及服務所產生之無形利益是否應納入棄置營收之計算。(5)海岸電台船舶遇險及安全通信服務是否納入普及服務之考量。 　　其政策建議重點則為：(1)為消彌外界之疑慮，並兼顧效率運作之原則，除必要之管理費用應撙節使用外，相關之收支帳目宜經由會計師簽證予以公開透明化。(2)為維護消費者之權利，裝置材料費用應有下降趨勢，應重新檢討並提出合理成本，訂定合理之收費方式。(3)社會安全或急難救助所經費，應由社會福利安全政策編列預算支應，以免增加電信業者之成本負擔，並轉價至最終消費者。(4)無形利益應可加以計算納入棄置營收項目內，可利用每一家或前五大業者平均的廣告效果估算；或利用消費者行為之抽樣問卷調查，求出潛在消費者及平均消費之貢獻，做為無形利益的推估。(5)可成立專案小組，針對海岸電台設備及維運費用等訂定效率化之衡量標準；或以公開招標方式，徵求自願投入之電信業者；或協調海巡暑整編至該單位。(6)必須建立一套成本資料管理及稽核制度，以增加核算資料的明確性。(7)考慮修法開放可以行動電話做為普及服務之提供，公開徵詢有興趣之行動電話業者，並於北、中、南區各找一處以行動電話提供普及服務之實驗。(8)第一類電信事業部分，可由普及服務管理委員會就經營效率性、虧損之持續性等相關因素，予以審核後得免予繳交；第二類電信事業部分，以經營語音單純轉售及網路電話兩項從事語音電話服務為主，衡酌經營差異程度，排除一定營業額以下者可免予繳交。 / In the past, in order to provide seamless end-to-end communications services for the end users, telecom enterprises that required cost-sunk expenditure, economies of scale and operated an indivisible network had been regarded as a naturally monopolistic business. Moreover, telecommunications as one of public services relevant to the people’s livelihood has to be provided for all nationals at an affordable price and a reasonable level of service quality. As a result, most telecom enterprises worldwide were operated and conducted by the Government. 　　Nevertheless, along with the global trend of telecom liberalization, on July 1 1996 our government reorganized the DGT into a sole telecom regulator and established the state-own holding company, CHT, to provide telecom services, with a view to build up a regulatory regime and to open the telecom market further. To avoid newcomers in a competitive environment tending to focus on high revenue growth telecommunication markets, such as metropolitan areas, resulting in the phenomenon of ‘cream skimming’ and in the impediment to the spirit of public services, there is a need for government intervention in the provision of telecom services. 　　Basically, the concept of universal telecommunications service shall be confined to the basic telecommunication services which are indispensable to every citizens and should be provided on reasonable request at an affordable price and a reasonable level of quality. However, universal telecommunications service might has different definitions over time so as to fulfill its policy objectives in each phase given the development of technologies and the changes in social environment. 　　Accordingly, by conducting Documentary-type method, Delphi method and Case Studies, this dissertation has illustrated with regulatory theory why regulation shall be based on the requirement of the environment. Particularly, during the early stages of telecom liberalization, regulatory involvement at right moment is required for creating a level-playing field when introducing competition. From the websites of several telecom regulators in advanced countries, e.g. US, UK, Australia, HK, etc., and some literatures on telecom liberalization, this dissertation has collected those countries’ management criteria and legal framework for universal service and summed up their universal service objectives, providers, cost calculation methods and obligation sharing mechanisms. Then through a further analysis and comparison, it has tried to propose a universal service mechanism that might better fit our national conditions and offer the authority concerned some practical recommendations for the implementation issues. 　　In conclusion, this dissertation has built up a universal telecommunications service mechanism based on both theoretical analyses and practical considerations. Besides, it has included some key findings as follows: (1) Given the fact that the universal service fund is not one kind of government funds, shall it still be managed through annual official planning and budgeting? (2) From a viewpoint of profitable undertaking, a fixed network operator might want to charge a remote subscriber outside its service area for some extra facilities fees for service installation. This might be reasonable under commercial terms. But shall we allow such extra fees to be subsidized by the universal service fund? (3) Some people might regard the purpose of the universal service fund as an issue on social security or emergency rescue, and hence distort the spirit of universal service fund. (4) It is questionable whether intangible benefits, resulting form the provision of universal service, could be grouped into revenue forgone. (5) Is it appropriate for an operator to recover its costs of providing coastal radio maritime emergency and safety communication services from the universal service fund? 　　Furthermore, it has given several key policy recommendations as follows: (1) For the sake of dispelling people’s doubts and managing the efficiency in universal service fund, all of the accounts of expenditures shall be open and transparent except that the administrative costs must be kept at minimum. (2) In order to protect consumers’ rights, the equipment installation fee should follow a downward trend and must be cost based. (3) To avoid increasing the burden of telecom operators whose costs are ultimately entailed by consumers, budgets for social security or emergency rescue should be supported by national social welfare policies. (4) Intangible revenue that might be calculable by evaluating average effect of advertisement of each operator or top five operators should be grouped into revenue foregone. Or it may be possible to make a sampling survey of consumers’ behavior, finding the average contribution of each potential customer so as to estimate intangible revenue. (5) Grouping a task force to revise measuring criteria for the facilities and maintenance costs in coastal radio services efficiently. Besides, bids for these services may be opened for volunteers, or be coordinated with and incorporated into the function of Coast Guard Administration, Executive Yuan. (6) It is necessary to build up a mechanism of data management and auditing so as to increase the accountability of re-calculating data. (7) To think over the feasibility that mobile phone can be used for the provision of universal service as well by revising the relevant laws, and then in North, Middle, and South Taiwan, try to conduct a field trial in each area for providing universal service by using mobile phone. (8) For Type I telecommunications businesses, universal service committee can exempt them from universal service obligations with the concerns about their operation efficiency and the duration of losing money, and so on. For Type II telecommunications businesses, only those operating voice communications services, including simple resale and internet phone services, should bear the obligations, but whether they need to make contributions to the universal service fund or not can be decided through the evaluation of their business performance.