[ES] La presente Tesis Doctoral tiene dos objetivos claramente diferenciados, siendo el primero de ellos la realización de un estudio de optimización de la síntesis de nanoestructuras de óxido de wolframio (WO3) mediante el uso de un diseño de experimentos, mientras que el segundo de ellos es el uso de estas nanoestructuras en la degradación fotoelectrocatalítica de 4 pesticidas organofosforados de diferentes subfamilias (diazinon, fosmet, clorfenvinfos y fenamifos). El uso del óxido de wolframio como fotocatalizador en el proceso fotoelectrocatalítico (FEC) despierta un gran interés, ya que se trata de un semiconductor con gran fotoestabilidad en electrolitos acuosos ácidos, excelente conductividad eléctrica, tiene la capacidad de absorber la parte azul del espectro visible además de la luz ultravioleta, y el borde superior de la banda de valencia es mayor que el potencial de oxidación de H2O/O2. Todo ello hace que el WO3 sea capaz de fotooxidar eficazmente una amplia gama de compuestos orgánicos. Las nanoestructuras estudiadas en la Tesis Doctoral se sintetizaron mediante anodizado electroquímico, ya que se trata de una técnica sencilla que permite un control de sus parámetros de manera fácil y efectiva, permitiendo obtener las nanoestructuras directamente sobre el propio sustrato metálico. Además, la necesidad de controlar y eliminar los contaminantes emergentes en el medio ambiente se ha vuelto cada vez más crucial durante las últimas décadas. Así, en esta Tesis se han degradado 4 pesticidas tóxicos y persistentes en el medioambiente mediante la técnica de fotoelectrocatálisis (FEC) utilizando las nanoestructuras de WO3. En esta técnica, los fenómenos electrolíticos y fotocatalíticos actúan juntos para mineralizar el contaminante orgánico. Además, la FEC está atrayendo la atención de los investigadores por su capacidad para degradar contaminantes orgánicos y transformarlos en compuestos inocuos con condiciones de trabajo no extremas. Por tanto, en el diseño de experimentos realizado en la Tesis Doctoral se modificaron 3 variables con tres niveles cada una, por tanto se escogió un diseño 33. Las variables que se modificaron fueron el electrolito utilizado durante el anodizado, la temperatura y atmosfera en el proceso de post-anodizado (tratamiento térmico), obteniendo de esta manera nanoestructuras con diferentes propiedades tanto estructurales como fotoelectroquímicas. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron que las nanoestructuras que presentan mejores propiedades morfológicas y fotoelectroquímicas, y con una estructura cristalina más adecuada fueron las obtenidas con el ácido metanosulfónico (CH4O3S) como electrolito y calentadas en el proceso de post-anodizado a 600 ¿C y en atmósfera de aire. Con estas nanoestructuras optimizadas, se realizó el proceso de degradación de los 4 pesticidas seleccionados mediante fotoelectrocatálisis. En este proceso, se partió de una concentración inicial de 20 ppm en todos los pesticidas, haciéndose un seguimiento del pesticida mediante UV-Visible y cromatografía líquida de ultra alto rendimiento acoplada a la espectrometría de masas (UHPLC-MS/Q-TOF). Tras 24 horas de ensayo se consiguió degradar el diazinón hasta 2 ppm (consiguiendo un 90% de degradación), el clorfenvinfos se degradó hasta 1 ppm (consiguiendo un 95% de degradación) y el fosmet y fenamifos se degradaron al 100%. Para cada uno de los pesticidas se ha propuesto una ruta de degradación según los compuestos intermedios identificados mediante el UHPLC-MS/Q-TOF, dando como resultado final moléculas más pequeñas y más inocuas para los seres humanos y para el medioambiente. / [CA] La present tesi doctoral té dos objectius clarament diferenciats, sent el primer la realització d'un estudi d'optimització de la síntesi de nanoestructures d'òxid de wolframi (WO3) mitjançant l'ús d'un disseny d'experiments, mentre que el segon és l'ús d'aquestes nanoestructures en la degradació fotoelectrocatalítica de quatre pesticides organofosforats de diferents subfamílies (diazinon, fosmet, clorfenvinfòs i fenamifòs). L'ús de l'òxid de wolframi com a fotocatalitzador en el procés fotoelectrocatalític (FEC) desperta un gran interès, ja que es tracta d'un semiconductor amb gran fotoestabilitat en electròlits aquosos àcids; amb una excel·lent conductivitat elèctrica; té la capacitat d'absorbir la part blava de l'espectre visible, a més de la llum ultraviolada, i la vora superior de la banda de valència és major que el potencial d'oxidació d'H2O/O2. Tot això fa que el WO3 siga capaç de fotooxidar eficaçment una àmplia gamma de compostos orgànics. Les nanoestructures estudiades en la tesi doctoral es van sintetitzar mitjançant anodització electroquímica, ja que es tracta d'una tècnica senzilla que permet un control dels seus paràmetres de manera fàcil i efectiva, i permet obtenir les nanoestructures directament sobre el mateix substrat metàl·lic. A més, la necessitat de controlar i eliminar els contaminants emergents en el medi ambient s'ha tornat cada vegada més crucial durant les últimes dècades. Així, en aquesta tesi s'han degradat quatre pesticides tòxics i persistents en el medi ambient mitjançant la tècnica de la fotoelectrocatàlisi (FEC) utilitzant les nanoestructures de WO3. En aquesta tècnica, els fenòmens electrolítics i fotocatalítics actuen junts per a mineralitzar el contaminant orgànic. La FEC està atraient l'atenció del personal investigador per la seua capacitat per a degradar contaminants orgànics i transformar-los en compostos innocus amb condicions de treball no extremes. Per tant, en el disseny d'experiments realitzat en la tesi doctoral es van modificar tres variables amb tres nivells cadascuna, per tant, es va triar un disseny 33. Les variables que es van modificar van ser: l'electròlit utilitzat durant l'anodització, la temperatura i l'atmosfera en el procés de postanodització (tractament tèrmic), i es van obtenir d'aquesta manera nanoestructures amb diferents propietats, tant estructurals com fotoelectroquímiques. Els resultats obtinguts van mostrar que les nanoestructures que presenten millors propietats morfològiques i fotoelectroquímiques, i amb una estructura cristal·lina més adequada, van ser les obtingudes amb l'àcid metanosulfònic (CH4O3S) com a electròlit, i calfades en el procés de postanodització a 600 ¿C i en atmosfera d'aire. Amb aquestes nanoestructures optimitzades, es va realitzar el procés de degradació dels quatre pesticides seleccionats mitjançant fotoelectrocatàlisi. En aquest procés, es va partir d'una concentració inicial de 20 ppm en tots els pesticides, i es va fer un seguiment del pesticida mitjançant UV visible i cromatografia líquida d'ultraalt rendiment acoblada a l'espectrometria de masses (UHPLC-MS/Q-TOF). Després de 24 hores d'assaig, es va aconseguir degradar el diazinon fins a 2 ppm (es va assolir un 90% de degradació), el clorfenvinfòs es va degradar fins a 1 ppm (es va assolir un 95% de degradació) i el fosmet i el fenamifòs es van degradar al 100%. Per a cadascun dels pesticides s'ha proposat una ruta de degradació segons els compostos intermedis identificats mitjançant l'UHPLC-MS/Q-TOF, que dona com a resultat final molècules més xicotetes i més innòcues per als éssers humans i per al medi ambient. / [EN] This Doctoral Thesis has two clearly differentiated objectives. The first objective is to carry out an optimization study of the synthesis of tungsten oxide nanostructures (WO3) using a design of experiments. The second objective is to use of these nanostructures in the photoelectrocatalytic degradation of 4 organophosphate pesticides of different subfamilies (diazinon, phosmet, chlorfenvinphos and fenamiphos). The use of tungsten oxide as a photocatalyst in the photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) process arouses great interest, since it is a semiconductor with great photostability in acidic aqueous electrolytes, excellent electrical conductivity, it has the ability to absorb the blue part of the visible spectrum in addition to ultraviolet light, and the upper edge of the valence band is greater than the oxidation potential of H2O / O2. All this makes WO3 capable of efficiently photo-oxidizing a wide range of organic compounds. The nanostructures studied in the Doctoral Thesis were synthesized using electrochemical anodization, since it is a simple technique that permits the control their parameters easily and effectively, allowing the nanostructures to be obtained directly on the metal substrate itself. Furthermore, the need to control and eliminate emerging pollutants in the environment has become increasingly crucial over the past decades. Thus, in this Thesis, 4 toxic and persistent pesticides in the environment have been degraded by the photoelectrocatalysis (PEC) technique using the WO3 nanostructures. In this technique, the electrolytic and photocatalytic phenomena act together to mineralize the organic contaminant. PEC is attracting the attention of researchers for its ability to degrade organic pollutants and transform them into harmless compounds under non-extreme working conditions. Therefore, in the design of experiments carried out in the Doctoral Thesis, 3 variables were modified with three levels each one, therefore a 33 design was chosen. The variables that were modified were the electrolyte used during the anodization, the temperature and the atmosphere in the post-anodization process (annealing treatment), thus obtaining nanostructures with different structural and photoelectrochemical properties. The results obtained showed that the nanostructures with the best morphological and photoelectrochemical properties, and with adequate crystalline structure werethose obtained with methanesulfonic acid (CH4O3S) as electrolyte and annealed in the post-anodization process at 600 ¿C and in an air atmosphere. With these optimized nanostructures, the degradation process of the 4 selected pesticides was carried out by photoelectrocatalysis. This process started from an initial concentration of 20 ppm in all pesticides, using UV-Visible and Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrophotometry (UHPLCMS / Q-TOF) to monitoring the process. After 24 hours of experiment, the diazinon was degraded to 2 ppm (achieving 90% degradation), chlorfenvinphos was degraded to 1 ppm (achieving 95% degradation) and phosmet and fenamiphos were 100% degraded. For each of the pesticides, a degradation route has been proposed according to the intermediate compounds identified by UHPLC-MS/Q-TOF, resulting in smaller and more innocuous molecules for humans and the environment. / Agradezco a la Generalitat Valenciana y al Fondo Social Europeo por la ayuda predoctoral recibida para la realización de la presente Tesis Doctoral (ACIF 159- 2018) así como para la realización de una estancia predoctoral en la Universidad de Lisboa. También quiero agradecer al Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad, por la concesión de los proyectos CTQ2016-79203-R (2016) y PID2019-105844RB-I00 (2019) en los cuales he podido participar durante la Tesis Doctoral. / Roselló Márquez, G. (2021). Eliminación de pesticidas organofosforados mediante fotoelectrocatálisis con fotoánodos de WO3 [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/174712 / TESIS

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The field of two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials first began in earnest with the discovery of graphene in 2004 due to their unique shape-dependent optical, electronic, and mechanical properties. These properties arise due to their one-dimensional confinement and are further influenced by the elemental composition of the inorganic crystal lattice. There has been an intense focus on developing new compositions of 2D nanomaterials to take advantage of their intrinsic beneficial properties in a variety of applications including catalysis, energy storage and harvesting, sensing, and polymer nanocomposites. However, compared to the field of bulk materials, the influence of surface chemistry on 2D nanomaterials is still underdeveloped. 2D nanomaterials are considered an “all-surface” atomic structure with heights of a single to few layers of atoms. The synthetic methods used to produce 2D materials include bottom-up colloidal methods and top-down exfoliation related techniques. Both cases result in poorly controlled surface chemistry with many undercoordinated surface atoms and/or undesirable molecules bound to the surface. Considering the importance surfaces play in most applications (i.e., catalysis and polymer processing) it is imperative to better understand how to manipulate the surface of 2D nanomaterials to unlock their full technological potential. Through a focus of the ligand-surface atom bonding in addition to the overall ligand structure we highlight the ability to direct morphological outcomes in lead free halide perovskites, maximize optoelectronic responses in substoichiometric tungsten oxide, and alter physicochemical properties titanium carbide MXenes. The careful control of precursor materials including poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) surface ligands during the synthesis of bismuth halide perovskites resulted in the formation of 2D quasi-Ruddlesden-Popper phase nanomaterials. Through small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and in conjunction with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) we were able to conclude that an in-situ formation of an amino functional group on our PEG-amine ligand was inserted into the perovskite crystal lattice enabling 2D morphology formation. Additionally, through UV-vis absorption and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopies we were able to develop a complete electronic band structure of materials containing varying halides (i.e., Cl, Br, and I). Furthermore, through the increased solubility profile of the PEG ligands we observed solvent controlled assemblies of varying mesostructures. We developed an ex-situ ligand treatment to manipulate the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) response of anion vacancy doped tungsten oxide (WO3-x) nanoplatelets (NPLs). Upon ligand treatment to alter the surface passivating ligand from carboxylic acid containing myristic acid (MA) to tetradecylphosphonic acid (TDPA) we observed a >100 nm blue shift in the LSPR response. Using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopies in conjunction with DFT calculated Raman spectra we were able to conclude this shift was due to the formation of tridentate phosphonate bonds on the NPLs surface. Phosphonate bonding allows for an increase in surface passivation per ligand decreasing surface trapped electrons. These previously trapped electrons were then able to participate as free electrons in the LSPR response. Electron paramagnetic spectroscopy (EPR) further supported this decrease in surface traps through a decrease and shift of the EPR signal related to metal oxide surface trapped electrons. Lastly, using our knowledge of PEG ligands we were able to modify esterification chemistry to covalently attach PEG ligands to a MXene surface. The successful formation of an ester bond between a carboxylic acid containing PEG ligand and hydroxyl terminating group on the MXene surface was supported by FTIR spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. The attachment of PEG resulted in a drastic change in the hydrophilicity of the MXene surface. Where MXenes were previously only processed in extremely polar solvents the PEG attachment allowed for high dispersibility in a wide range of polar and non-polar organic solvents, effectively increasing their processability. Further, this chemistry was modified to include an additional functional group on the PEG ligand to increase the valency of the post-modification MXene nanoflakes. Overall, work presented in this dissertation represents the development and application of surface chemistry to relatively new 2D nanomaterials. We believe our work significantly increases the knowledge of 2D halide perovskite formation, manipulation of LSPR active metal oxide materials, and the future processing of MXene materials.

Στην παρούσα εργασία μελετήθηκαν λεπτά υμένια οξειδίου του αλουμινίου (Al2O3) και οζειδίου του ζιρκονίου (ZrO2). Η ανάπτυξη των οξειδίων έγινε πάνω σε υπόστρωμα γερμανίου (Ge) με την τεχνική εναπόθεσης ατομικού στρώματος (Atomic Layer Deposition, ALD). Επίσης μελετήθηκαν υμένια οξειδίου του βολφραμίου (WO3), των οποίων η εναπόθεση έγινε με δυο διαφορετικές τεχνικές, πάνω σε υπόστρωμα P3HT:PCBM. Η μελέτη πραγματοποιήθηκε σε συνθήκες υπερυψηλού κενού (Ultra High Vacuum, UHV) με επιφανειακά ευαίσθητες τεχνικές. Κύριος στόχος αυτής της εργασίας, είναι για τα οξείδια αλουμινίου και ζιρκονίου η διερεύνηση της χημικής σύστασης και της ηλεκτρονιακής δομής ενώ θα γίνει μια εκτίμηση του πάχους των υμενίων καθώς και σύγκριση με την αναμενόμενη τιμή συμφωνα με την διαδικασία παρασκευής. Για οξείδια του βολφραμίου έγινε μελέτη τόσο της επιφανειακής χημικής σύστασης όσο και της ηλεκτρονιακής δομής της διεπιφάνειας του οξειδίου του βολφραμίου (WO3) με το υπόστρωμα P3HT:PCBM καθώς και μία σύγκριση των αποτελεσμάτων ανάμεσα στην εξάχνωση με δέσμη ηλεκτρονίων (Electron Beam Evaporation) και τη μέθοδο διαλύματος-πηκτώματος (Sol-Gel) τεχνικές οι οποίες χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για την εναπόθεση των υμενίων οξειδίου του βολφραμίου. / In the present work,studied thin films of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and zirconium oxide (ZrO2) thin films. Atomic Layer Deposition technique (ALD) was used for the growth of oxide on the germanium (Ge) substrate. Also studied films of tungsten oxide (WO3), which were deposited with two different techniques, onto P3HT:PCBM substrate. The study was conducted under conditions of UHV (Ultra High Vacuum) using surface sensitive techniques. The main objective of this work was to investigate the chemical composition and electronic structure and make an estimate of the thickness of aluminum oxide and zirconium oxide thin films. The thickness was compared with the expected value according to the manufacturing process. For the tungsten oxides were studied the surface chemical composition and the electronic structure of the WO3/P3HT:PCBM interface as well as a comparison of results between the Electron Beam Evaporation and Sol-Gel method, techniques which were used for the deposition of thin films of tungsten oxide.

L'utilisation de couches minces photocatalytiques à base de TiO2 est restreinte aux applications en extérieur ou sous lumière artificielle. En effet, ces systèmes nécessitent des UV pour être actif. Pour s'affranchir de ce point, plusieurs axes de travail ont été étudiés. Le premier consiste à utiliser un matériau différent de TiO2, absorbant dans le visible et ayant une activité significative. Nous avons pour cela développé un procédé de broyage original permettant d'étudier des poudres synthétisées sous forme micronique, dans des conditions semblables aux systèmes de référence. Une autre voie est de doper TiO2 avec de l'azote, de façon à modifier son spectre d'absorption dans le visible. Pour cela, nous avons mis au point un protocole permettant d'une part de nitrurer des nanoparticules à haute température (jusqu'à 900 °C) en conservant leur taille, ou d'autre part de nitrurer directement les couches à base de TiO2. Nous avons étudié les espèces apparues lors de la nitruration, leur impact sur l'activité des systèmes photocatalytiques à 390 nm. Nous avons alors pu mettre au point des couches 20 fois plus actives que les films de référence à cette longueur d'onde. Le dernier axe abordé consiste à associer TiO2 à un matériau absorbant dans le visible, et capable de transférer son excitation dans TiO2 : WO3. Ceci a nécessité l'étude des transferts électroniques entre les deux matériaux, par le biais d'une technique originale de voltamétrie. Nous avons alors pu utiliser ces mesures pour prédire les activités photocatalytiques. Cette méthode pourra être utilisée pour étudier d'autres hétérostructures, pouvant se montrer beaucoup plus actives.

L'objectif de la thèse est d'étudier des dispositifs électrochromes sur support flexibles. Ces systèmes ont une transmission dans le visible et le proche infra-rouge qui peut être modulée sous l'effet d'une tension électrique. Ils sont constitués d'un empilement de couches minces : - un film électrochrome à coloration cathodique à base de WO3, - une couche conductrice ionique au lithium, inorganique (LiPON) ou organique gélifiée, - une contre-électrode à coloration anodique ("LixNi0.5O") ou optiquement passive (V2O5). Cet ensemble, compris entre deux électrodes conductrices transparentes est déposé sur PET. Les couches électrochromes et l'électrolyte inorganique sont déposés par pulvérisation cathodique. La corrélation entre paramètres de dépôt, propriétés électrochromes et propriétés structurales a été établie.

The object of this work is to obtain a fundamentalunderstanding of the principal issues concerning the handlingof an aqueous WC-Co powder suspension. The WO3 surface layer on the oxidised tungsten carbidepowder dissolves at pH&gt;3 with the tungsten concentrationincreasing linearly with time. Adding cobalt powder to thetungsten carbide suspension resulted in a significant reductionof the dissolution rate at pH&lt;10. Electrokinetic studiesindicated that the reduced dissolution rate may be related tothe formation of surface complexes; the experiments showed thatCo species in solution adsorb on the oxidised tungsten carbidepowder. The surface forces of oxidised tungsten and cobalt surfaceswere investigated using the atomic force microscope (AFM)colloidal probe technique. The interactions at various ionicstrengths and pH values are well described by DLVO theory. Theadsorption of cobalt ions to tungsten oxide surfaces resultedin an additional non-DLVO force and a reduced absolute value ofthe surface potential. It was shown that the adsorption ofpoly(ethylene imine) (PEI) to the WO3 surfaces induces anelectrosteric repulsion. The properties of spray-dried WC-Co granules were related tothe WC primary particle size, and the poly(ethylene glycol)(PEG) binder and PEI dispersant content in aqueous WC-Cosuspensions. The granule characterisation includes a new methodfor measuring the density of single granules. The increase inthe fracture strength of granules produced from suspensionsthat were stabilised with PEI was related to a more densepacking of the WC-Co particles. The AFM was used to study the friction and adhesion ofsingle spray-dried WC-Co granules containing various amounts ofPEG binder. The adhesion and friction force between two singlegranules (intergranular friction) and between a granule and ahard metal substrate (die-wall friction) have been determinedas a function of relative humidity. The granule-wall frictionincreases with binder content and relative humidity, whereasthe granule-granule friction is essentially independent of therelative humidity and substantially lower than the granule-wallfriction at all PEG contents. Key words:Hard Metal, Cemented Carbide, WC-Co, TungstenCarbide, Cobalt, Oxidation, Dissolution, Surface Complexation,XPS, AFM, Colloidal Probe, Hamaker Constant, Cauchy, WO3,CoOOH, ESCA, Zeta-Potential, Surface Potential, Poly(ethyleneimine), PEI, Suspension, van der Waals, Steric, Spray-Dried,Poly(ethylene glycol), Strength, Density, Friction, Adhesion,Granule, PEG, Pressing, FFM. / <p>QC 20161027</p>

<p>The object of this work is to obtain a fundamentalunderstanding of the principal issues concerning the handlingof an aqueous WC-Co powder suspension.</p><p>The WO3 surface layer on the oxidised tungsten carbidepowder dissolves at pH>3 with the tungsten concentrationincreasing linearly with time. Adding cobalt powder to thetungsten carbide suspension resulted in a significant reductionof the dissolution rate at pH<10. Electrokinetic studiesindicated that the reduced dissolution rate may be related tothe formation of surface complexes; the experiments showed thatCo species in solution adsorb on the oxidised tungsten carbidepowder.</p><p>The surface forces of oxidised tungsten and cobalt surfaceswere investigated using the atomic force microscope (AFM)colloidal probe technique. The interactions at various ionicstrengths and pH values are well described by DLVO theory. Theadsorption of cobalt ions to tungsten oxide surfaces resultedin an additional non-DLVO force and a reduced absolute value ofthe surface potential. It was shown that the adsorption ofpoly(ethylene imine) (PEI) to the WO3 surfaces induces anelectrosteric repulsion.</p><p>The properties of spray-dried WC-Co granules were related tothe WC primary particle size, and the poly(ethylene glycol)(PEG) binder and PEI dispersant content in aqueous WC-Cosuspensions. The granule characterisation includes a new methodfor measuring the density of single granules. The increase inthe fracture strength of granules produced from suspensionsthat were stabilised with PEI was related to a more densepacking of the WC-Co particles.</p><p>The AFM was used to study the friction and adhesion ofsingle spray-dried WC-Co granules containing various amounts ofPEG binder. The adhesion and friction force between two singlegranules (intergranular friction) and between a granule and ahard metal substrate (die-wall friction) have been determinedas a function of relative humidity. The granule-wall frictionincreases with binder content and relative humidity, whereasthe granule-granule friction is essentially independent of therelative humidity and substantially lower than the granule-wallfriction at all PEG contents.</p><p><b>Key words:</b>Hard Metal, Cemented Carbide, WC-Co, TungstenCarbide, Cobalt, Oxidation, Dissolution, Surface Complexation,XPS, AFM, Colloidal Probe, Hamaker Constant, Cauchy, WO3,CoOOH, ESCA, Zeta-Potential, Surface Potential, Poly(ethyleneimine), PEI, Suspension, van der Waals, Steric, Spray-Dried,Poly(ethylene glycol), Strength, Density, Friction, Adhesion,Granule, PEG, Pressing, FFM.</p>

The work deals with the deposition of layers for electrochromic device with different methods. Transparent electrically conductive layer of SnO2 was deposited by pyrolytic decomposition of peroxostannate solution. Hydrogen peroxide in starting solution contributes to the oxidation process of growth layers and to increase the electrical conductivity. Active electrochromic layer of WO3 was electrolytic deposited from the peroxotungstic acid solution. Optimal deposition time and the optimal annealing temperature of deposited layers were found. Passive electrochromic layer of V2O5 was deposited using dip-coating method from peroxovanadate solution. A contribution of solution diluted with distilled water was investigated. Found results were used to construct complete electrochromic device with polymer gel electrolyte.

In this work, thin and compact films of TiO2, Nb2O5 and WO3 nanoparticles were prepared to be used as contact/blocking layer in dye sensitized solar cells (DSCs). The films were produced by deposition of 30 bilayers of TiO2(ac)/TiO2(bas), TiO2(ac)/Nb2O5(bas) and TiO2(ac)/WO3(bas) using the layer-by-layer technique (LbL) from nanoparticle sols of TiO2 (pH = 2 and 10), Nb2O5 (pH = 10) and WO3 (pH 10) prepared by sol-gel method. The TiO2/TiO2 and TiO2/Nb2O5 underlayers resulted in an increase of 25% and 87% respectively, in the efficiency of DSCs when compared to those without the contact/blocking layers. The application of TiO2/WO3 films did not result in any improvement of DSC efficiency. Factors such as thickness, nanoparticles homogeneity, oxides concentration on the films and roughness directly influence on the efficiency of such films as contact/blocking layer. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) images, confirmed that all films are constituted by spherical nanoparticles with homogeneous diameters smaller than 20 nm, resulting on compact and low porous surfaces. This morphology ensures a physical barrier between the electrolyte and the conductive glass used as electrode in DSCs. The TiO2/TiO2 and TiO2/Nb2O5 films also exhibited higher roughness than the surface of the conductive glass without the bilayers, which increases the interaction with the mesoporous TiO2 film. The molar ratios of the species present on the films are controlled by the pH employed during deposition, and were determined by X- ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The Ti4+/Nb5+ and Ti4+/W6+ ratios were 1.6 and 19 respectively, which evidences a higher concentration of TiO2 nanoparticles on the films. For a better understanding of the role of the bilayers on the charge transfer processes, the substrates were analyzed by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). The electronic properties of the oxides also influence the efficiency of the LbL films as contact/blocking layers. Due to its higher band gap, Nb2O5 nanoparticles impose an electronic barrier to the electrons transfer from the conductive substrate to the electrolyte, additionally to the physical barrier. / Neste trabalho foram preparados filmes finos e compactos de óxidos nanoparticulados de TiO2, Nb2O5 e WO3 para a aplicação como camada de contato/bloqueio em células solares sensibilizadas por corante (DSCs). Os filmes foram produzidos pela deposição de 30 bicamadas de TiO2(ác)/TiO2(bás), TiO2(ác/Nb2O5(bás) e TiO2(ác)/WO3(bás) utilizando a técnica de automontagem (Layer-by-Layer ou LbL), a partir dos sóis nanoparticulados de TiO2 (pH = 2 e 10), Nb2O5 (pH = 10) e WO3 (pH = 10) sintetizados pelo método sol-gel. A presença das bicamadas de TiO2/TiO2, TiO2/Nb2O5 gerou aumentos relativos na eficiência das DSCs de 25% e 87% respectivamente, quando comparadas às DSCs sem as bicamadas. Já o filme de TiO2/WO3 não gerou nenhuma melhoria na eficiência das DSCs. Fatores como a espessura, homogeneidade das nanopartículas, concentração dos óxidos nos filmes e a rugosidade influenciam diretamente na eficiência dos filmes como camada de contato/bloqueio. Imagens de Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura com Emissão de Campo (MEV-FEG) e Microscopia de Força Atômica (MFA) confirmaram que todos os filmes apresentaram nanopartículas esféricas com diâmetros homogêneos e menores que 20 nm, o que acarreta na formação de superfícies compactas e pouco porosas. Esta morfologia garante uma barreira física entre o eletrólito e a superfície do vidro condutor utilizado como eletrodo nas DSCs. Os filmes de TiO2/TiO2 e TiO2/Nb2O5 apresentaram também rugosidades maiores que a da superfície do vidro condutor sem as bicamadas, o que aumenta a interação entre com o filme de TiO2 mesoporoso. As razões molares das espécies presentes nos filmes são controladas pelo pH empregado durante as deposições, e foram determinadas por Espectroscopia de Fotoelétrons Excitados por raios-X (XPS). As razões Ti4+/Nb5+ e Ti4+/W6+ foram de 1,6 e 19 respectivamente, o que evidencia uma maior quantidade de nanopartículas de TiO2 nos filmes. Para melhor entender o papel das bicamadas nos processos de transferência de cargas, os substratos foram analisados por Espectroscopia de Impedância Eletroquímica (EIE). As propriedades eletrônicas dos óxidos também influenciam na eficiência dos filmes automontados como camada de contato/bloqueio. Devido ao seu maior valor de band gap, as nanopartículas de Nb2O5 impõem, além de uma barreira física, uma barreira eletrônica para a transferência dos elétrons do substrato condutor para o eletrólito. / Mestre em Química

<p>This dissertation describes how the surface chemistries of 2D nanomaterials can be modified to alter overall material properties. Specifically, through a focus of the ligand-surface atom bonding in addition to the overall ligand structure we highlight the ability to direct morphological outcomes in lead free halide perovskites, maximize optoelectronic responses in substoichiometric tungsten oxide, and alter physicochemical properties titanium carbide MXenes.   </p>