<p>Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2007</p>

Submitted by Amanda Cappellazzo Arabage (amanda_arabage@msn.com) on 2013-06-11T18:18:08Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Amanda Arabage.pdf: 2257979 bytes, checksum: 53712e3dfdc43c2acc992b86c428c1ef (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Suzinei Teles Garcia Garcia (suzinei.garcia@fgv.br) on 2013-06-11T19:48:47Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Amanda Arabage.pdf: 2257979 bytes, checksum: 53712e3dfdc43c2acc992b86c428c1ef (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-06-11T20:19:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Amanda Arabage.pdf: 2257979 bytes, checksum: 53712e3dfdc43c2acc992b86c428c1ef (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-05-27 / Neste trabalho estudamos a evolução da desigualdade de salários no mercado formal de trabalho no Brasil utilizando dados da Relação Anual de Informações Sociais (RAIS) no período entre 1994 e 2009. Utilizamos a variância do log do salário real por hora contratual de trabalho como medida de desigualdade e, através do uso de métodos de decomposição da variância em seus componentes permanente e transitório, verificamos que, no Brasil, cerca de 84% da desigualdade é explicada pelo componente permanente, ou seja, por características individuais invariantes no tempo. A educação responde por uma parcela expressiva deste componente (54% em média). Ao longo do período em questão houve uma redução da desigualdade de salários, sendo esta explicada pela redução do componente transitório entre 1994 e 1998 e pela diminuição do componente permanente entre 1999 e 2009. / This study analyzes the evolution of wage inequality in the formal labor market in Brazil in the years 1994-2009 using administrative data (RAIS). We use the variance of log hourly wages as a way to access wage inequality. Decomposing variance into its permanent and transitory components, we find that 84% of Brazilian wage inequality is due to its permanent component, in other words, it can be explained by individual characteristics that do not change over time. Regarding this permanent component, we show that education responds to approximately 54% of it. From 1994 to 2009, Brazil experienced a reduction in wage inequality. This reduction was caused by a decrease in the transitory component from 1994 to 1998 and by a decrease in the permanent component from 1999 to 2009.

Submitted by Ignacio Rey (ignacio.crespo12@gmail.com) on 2013-06-20T16:02:43Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação.pdf: 1892087 bytes, checksum: 9b69116ff77d99edaa98675b0553f14c (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marcia Bacha (marcia.bacha@fgv.br) on 2013-06-27T12:13:35Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação.pdf: 1892087 bytes, checksum: 9b69116ff77d99edaa98675b0553f14c (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-06-27T12:13:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação.pdf: 1892087 bytes, checksum: 9b69116ff77d99edaa98675b0553f14c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-06-12 / The aim of this paper is to understand more about the role of trade liberalization on wage inequality, more precisely, on the residual wage inequality. Using the Brazil- ian trade openness, the large tari cuts that occurred between 1987 and 1995, it is empirically investigated whether di erent levels of exposure to trade across states contributed to the di erent inequality movements. Results indicate that states more exposed to trade liberalization experienced a relative increase in residual wage in- equality or, equivalently, a smaller decrease. These ndings enrich the discussion on the e ects of trade openness on inequality. / O objetivo deste trabalho é entender mais sobre o papel da liberalização sobre a desigualdade salarial, mais precisamente, sobre a desigualdade residual dos salários. Usando a abertura comercial brasileira, a extensa redução tarifária que ocorreu entre 1987 e 1995, é investigado empiricamente se os diferentes níveis de exposição ao comércio entre os estados contribuíram para os diferentes movimentos da desigualdade. Os resultados indicam que estados mais expostos à liberalização comercial experimentaram um aumento relativo da desigualdade residual dos salários ou, de forma equivalente, uma menor redução. Estes resultados enriquecem a discussão dos efeitos da abertura comercial sobre a desigualdade.

We set up a trade model with heterogeneous firms and a worker population that is heterogeneous in two dimensions: workers are either skilled or unskilled, and within each skill category there is a continuum of abilities. Workers with high abilities, both skilled and unskilled, are matched to firms with high productivities, and this leads to wage differentials within each skill category across firms. Self-selection of the most productive firms into exporting generates an exporter wage premium, and our framework with skilled and unskilled workers allows us to decompose this premium into its skill-specific components. We employ linked employer-employee data from Germany to structurally estimate the parameters of the model. Using these parameter estimates, we compute an average exporter wage premium of 5 percent. The decomposition by skill turns out to be quantitatively highly relevant, with exporting firms paying no wage premium at all to their unskilled workers, while the premium for skilled workers is 12 percent.

Cette thèse porte sur l’étude des inégalités dans un cadre macroéconomique, d’un point de vue théorique ainsi qu’empirique. Dans un premier chapitre, j’écris et simule un modèle basé-agents capable de répliquer les distributions fat-tailed des richesses observées empiriquement dans les économies développées. Dans un second chapitre, je prolonge ce modèle théorique pour étudier l’impact économique des discriminations interpersonnelles et institutionnelles. Lorsque les discriminations institutionnelles cessent, l’état final des inégalités dépend de l’économie au moment de la fin de ces discriminations : plus l’économie est organisée, plus le temps nécessaire à une égalisation des revenus et richesses entre ethnies est long, voire infini. Dans un troisième chapitre empirique, j’étudie l’évolution des inégalités de salaire entre Noirs et Blancs aux États-Unis entre 1960 et 2015, en me concentrant sur la période 2000-2015. Je traite les biais de sélection liés à l’asymétrie raciale envers l’emprisonnement, et montre que l’écart - en conditionnant par l'âge et les diplômes - entre salaires médians des Noirs et des Blancs atteint un maximum en 2012. En utilisant la méthode de régression quantiles non-conditionnelles conjointement avec la décomposition de Blinder-Oaxaca, j’établis que la part non-expliquée de cet écart reste stable durant la Grande Récession. Enfin, dans une post-face, en utilisant les métadonnées de RePEC, j’établis que la part des articles scientifiques consacrés à l’étude des crises augmente significativement après 2008 pour 13 des 30 « top journals » en économie. / This PhD dissertation focuses on wealth and wage inequality, and the macro-economy. In a first chapter, I write and run a small macro agent-based model (M-ABM) in which I study the resultant distribution of wealth among households. I show that this model generates fat- tailed distributions of wealth in the household sector, as empirically observed in advanced economies. In a second chapter, I extend this model to study the macroeconomics of interpersonal and institutional discriminations against racial minorities. When discrimination is at work, racial disparities in income and wealth arise. The effect of the abolition of institutional discrimination is path-dependant: the more the economy is organized when this institutional change occurs, the more time it takes to get back to the counter-factual situation where no institutional discrimination was set up in the first place. In a third chapter, I study the evolution of the difference of median log-annual earnings between Blacks and Whites in the US between 1960 and 2015, focusing on the 2008 crisis. I control for selection arising from racial differentials in institutionalised population, and find that the unconditional racial wage gap attains a maximum in 2012. Controlling for age and education, I obtain the same result. Using unconditional quantile regressions, I show that the unexplained part of the unconditional racial wage gap has not increased during the crisis. Finally, in an afterword, I use metadata from RePEC to show that the share of economics papers published in the 13 of the 30 "top" journals containing "crisis" in their titles and/or abstracts has significantly increased in 2008.

El objetivo de esta investigación es evaluar qué variables impactan en la determinación del salario de los profesionales. Se han considerado como explicativas a las características por parte de la oferta laboral, es decir, del profesional, que son años de educación, género y zona de ubicación; también se incluye en la estimación a una variable que indica a qué familia de carrera pertenece el profesional. Además, se tiene en cuenta a una característica por parte de la demanda laboral, que es la actividad económica en la que trabaja el profesional, esto con el propósito de tener un modelo ampliado que analice tanto la perspectiva de oferta como de demanda laboral. Por ello, para la estimación de salarios se ha empleado la metodología en dos etapas de Heckman, ya que esta da solución al problema de sesgo de selección que está presente cuando se quieren estimar los ingresos laborales. De la sección econométrica se obtuvo que un individuo que cuente con más años de educación, que sea hombre y que trabaje en Lima Metropolitana, obtendrá mayores salarios. Por otro lado, tanto las variables de familia de carrera como de actividad económica resultaron fundamentales para la explicación de salarios de los profesionales. / The objective of this research is to evaluate which variables impact on the determination of the salary of professionals. The characteristics by part of the labor offer, that is, of the professional, have been considered as explanatory, which are years of education, gender, and area of location; a variable that indicates to which career family the professional belongs is also included in the estimation. In addition, a characteristic by part of the labor demand is taken into account, which is the economic activity in which the professional works, this with the purpose of having an expanded model that analyzes both the labor offer and demand perspectives. For this reason, for the estimation of salaries, Heckman’s two-stage methodology has been used, since it addresses the selection bias problem that is present when estimating labor income. From the econometric section, it was obtained that an individual who has more years of education, who is a man, and who works in Metropolitan Lima, has higher salaries. On the other hand, both the variables of career family and economic activity were fundamental for explaining the salaries of professionals. / Trabajo de investigación

近年來台灣製造業委外代工至大陸已是十分普遍的現象。從國外購買中間財貨、到國外設立跨國公司、購買國外製成品以國內的品牌進行銷售、或到國外找尋特殊投資關係合夥人等，都包含在委外代工的定義內。委外代工帶來了二個值得探討的議題：第一是委外代工對勞動市場的影響，包括失業問題和相對薪資的變化；第二，委外代工和經濟邊緣化問題之間存在尚未澄清的關聯，例如委外代工是不是會導致台灣經濟邊緣化、產業空洞化？因此，本論文分成兩大獨立的結構分別討論上述問題。 關於委外代工對勞動市場的影響，文獻上大多觀察下列現象（Feenstra and Hanson, 1995; Wood,1995）：製造業的就業規模是否縮減、整體製造業的技術勞動就業比例是否逐漸增加、整體製造業的非技術勞動就業比例是否逐漸下降、以及技術勞動和非技術勞動之間的薪資差距是否也逐漸擴大（反應出就業比例的改變）。本文對台灣的勞動市場進行研究，的確發現上述現象的產生。根據研究結果顯示，政府沒有理由限制傳統產業外移到大陸，反而要創造更好的高科技環境，積極地留住台灣的高科技產業。亦即，不同的產業需要不同的產業政策加以因應，雙向產業政策將是需要的。例如傳統產業，政府可以將政策提升到「委外代工國」的立場考量，讓獲利率低、生產不效率的產業委由大陸製造；對高科技產業政策政府則可試著採取「被委外代工國」的立場，積極創造更科技的產業環境，留住台灣科技產業和保住台灣科技產業代工王國的版圖。 對委外代工與台灣邊緣化議題的探討，主要源起於泛藍和泛綠在兩次總統大選中的兩岸政策的爭議─是否要「三通」。事實上，針對台灣是否會被邊緣化兩大陣營均尚未整理出一個完整的說明。透過Krugman and Venables（1995）模型闡述可以清楚地了解：邊緣化只是運輸成本下降的一個過程，不會是最終的結果。同時，運輸成本的下降並不是會造成邊緣化的唯一決定因子。產業關聯性和產品之間的替代程度都扮演相當重要的角色。因此，對不同產業設定特定政策才能達到抗邊緣化的效果。 / Outsourcing is the current trend between Taiwan and Mainland China in recent decade. Inclusive of importing intermediate inputs, setting up multinational firms, purchasing final goods produced abroad, outsourcing brings two topics worthy to discuss. My thesis is structured into two independent projects: one is to discuss the effects of outsourcing on unemployment and changes in relative wages, and the other focuses on the issue of whether outsourcing leads to Taiwan deindustrialization. The main findings in the first project are consistent with the major conclusions suggested by several studies（Feenstra and Hanson, 1995; Wood,1995）that: declining share of manufacturing employment in total employment, increasing share of skilled workers’ in total manufacturing employment and in total wage bill, while the converse in unskilled workers. Therefore, we have no reasons to limit the unprofitable and traditional industries to move out. What we should do is to develop and expand the higher-skilled sector and to encourage high-technology industries to upgrade the production with the most comparative advantage. Different industrial policies applicable to different features of each industry are necessary. To announce a rough and uniform policy will probably do more harms than goods. What unearthed from the second project is that concerns of economic periphery voiced by Pan-KMT and Pan-DPP alliances did not tell the full story. Krugman and Venables（1995）can be applied to show that economic periphery is just one of the points in the process of a dynamic development with reducing transportation cost. Besides, transportation cost is not the only contributor to “core and periphery” pattern. Share of intermediate input and elasticity of substitution for manufactured goods are also playing important roles. Therefore, different industries should be applicable for different policy arrangement.

In their pursuit of profits, adventure and new markets, humans have traded since prehistoric times. The relations between trade, profits and technological change, how- ever, were not the main concern of early economists ranging from Aristotle to the mercantilists. Presumably because in their world, the rate of technological change was decidedly low, and the basket and quality of goods available through production and trade did not change much over decades, or even centuries! In addition, it was not the technological change that brought markets closer, but “the ferocity of nomadic horsemen or the edge of a scimitar”, while “violently imposed monopolies and plunder”. (Findlay and O’Rourke, 2003) made trade more profitable. It was not until the industrial revolution that growth rates began to rise to high levels. Now that human inventions and discoveries came faster and cheaper than ever, trade liberalization was not only the way to gain access to new markets; trade liberalization had also a role in promoting growth. Trade liberalization in the form of lower trade costs, increases profits from exporting, and consequently, overall profits. That increases the incentives to innovate, produce something new and export it. Trade liberalization thus promotes technological change by increasing the incentives firms have to conduct R&amp;D, implement the innovation or improvement and make larger profits. The field of economics that studies economic growth as the result of decisions made by profit-maximizing firms is called endogenous growth theory. There have been a number of theoretical advances in endogenous growth theory over the last 20 years, but there is no consensus on whether trade liberalization promotes growth or not. Some models predict that trade liberalization has a positive effect on growth. Other models predict no effect at all. In addition, not all countries have benefited equally from globalization. In this dissertation, I study the linkages between trade liberalization and economic growth (papers one and two). In papers two and three, I also explore the relationships between globalization, growth and the demand for labor. There is well documented evidence from a number of countries, that the demand for less-skilled labor has decreased in recent decades, and this decrease has resulted in a higher skilled-wage premium, that is, the degree in which the wages of skilled workers exceed less-skilled worker wages. This phenomenon has occurred in several countries, including the U.S. The skilled- wage premium has also increased in Europe, although less dramatically. In paper two, the relationships between trade liberalization, growth and wage inequality are analyzed using an endogenous growth model. The third and final paper is an empirical study on the relationships between the demand for labor and offshoring. More specifically, I examine what happens to the demand for different types of labor (not only skilled and unskilled labor) in the Swedish plants of Swedish multinational enterprises, when these multinationals expand abroad. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan i Stockholm, 2011

外人直接投資（foreign direct investment, FDI）在經濟理論中是相當熱門的議題，它代表了讓地主國（host country）國資本累積、技術進步在短時間內快速增加的可能，因此許多國家往往會採取某些吸引外資的政策，再搭配國內制度或是貿易政策的改變，以追求經濟成長。然而，外來直接投資對地主國可能產生的所得重分配的影響，本文即是對此做一深入探討，並以台灣製造業資料來研究外來直接投資是否會擴大工資不均等的情形。 研究期間從1981～2004年共24年，依產業特性將製造業分為十大類，分別採取兩種不同的迴歸模型，包括自我迴歸落遲分配模型（auto regressive distributed lag model, ARDL model）與縱橫資料（panel data）迴歸模型等。實證模型上由生產理論出發，選擇作為解釋工資不均等的變數包括外人直接投資比例、出口比例、進口比例及產出成長率等四個變數。由實證結果得到以下結論： （1）就個別產業來看，FDI對台灣製造業工資不均等的影響並不一致，反應出產業特性不同，FDI所扮演的角色也不盡相同。其中FDI會惡化皮革與毛皮製造業的工資不均等情形，減輕橡膠及塑膠製品製造業與非金屬製品製造業的工資不均等情形，對其他製造業則是無明顯影響。 （2）就整體製造業的情形來看， FDI對工資的不均等的淨效果為正，但效果不大；出口、產出成長率有輕微使工資不均等擴大的情形，而進口則是可輕微縮減工資不均等的狀況。 （3）若是將十大製造業依產品特性區分為「民生」、「化學」、「機械」電子等三大工業，則可以發現FDI對民生工業有明顯擴大工資不均等的情形，在其他兩大工業則是無顯著影響。

La acumulación de Capital Humano es fundamental para explicar recientes procesos de crecimiento económico experimentados en numerosos países, los cambios en la distribución de la renta salarial, en la localización de la actividad productiva, del comercio, etc... Por ello, consideramos fundamental avanzar en el conocimiento que dicha acumulación haya podido tener en una economía como la española, caracterizada recientemente por un crecimiento intenso en la educación de los trabajadores. Por este motivo se realizan tres análisis. En el primero, descomponemos la distribución de los salarios para conocer qué factores han afectado a su cambio desde 1980. Dedicamos especial atención al efecto que el cambio educativo haya podido tener en la desigualdad salarial. En un segundo análisis descomponemos el cambio en la brecha salarial entre trabajo cualificado y no cualificado entre cambios en la demanda y oferta de cualificación. Por último, estimamos las externalidades del capital humano en España a nivel regional. / Human Capital accumulation is crucial for explaining countries' recent economic growth episodes, changes in income and wage distribution, production localization, trade, etc. Thus, we consider important enhance the knowledge for the Human Capital accumulation effects on Spanish economy, characterized by intensive growth of educated workers. Then, we do three analysis. First, we decompose the wage distribution to know which factors are behind its changes since 1980. We give special attention to education effects on that wage inequality change. In our second analysis, we decompose the more educated wage premium change between changes in demand and supply of skills. Finally, our third analysis try to estimate human capital externalities for Spanish regions.