Le Bénin partage près de 2000 km (cumulés) de frontières avec le Nigeria, le Togo, le Niger et le Burkina Faso. Des dynamiques transfrontalières, particulièrement importantes, viennent souligner à la fois, l’impertinence des frontières-barrières coloniales hâtivement tracées, mais aussi des modèles d’intégration régionale en Afrique de l’Ouest. Aux confins des États limitrophes, des territoires transfrontaliers économiquement, ethniquement et culturellement homogènes relativisent le concept de frontière-ligne, sans toutefois faire disparaître les différences d’ordre institutionnel, administratif et politique. Ces territoires «flottants», caractérisés par un syndrome de l’«entre-deux», disposent d’extraordinaires potentiels d’intégration qui pourraient être davantage exploités dans un contexte administratif décentralisé. La question est celle des stratégies et modalités d’intégration régionale en Afrique de l’Ouest. L’absence de volonté politique ne peut suffire à expliquer la vacuité des processus d’intégration. Cette thèse offre des perspectives de définition d’une matrice nouvelle en relations internationales et en politique publique, complémentaire des approches classiques d’analyse des mécanismes d’intégration régionale en Afrique de l’Ouest. Le grand défi consistant à trouver des formules permettant aux communautés et identités qui transcendent les frontières nationales de s’épanouir dans une logique bottom up, sans que le fait ethnique ou les dynamiques locales autonomes ne soient considérées comme remettant en cause la souveraineté des États et leurs prérogatives. L’unité culturelle profonde de la région est un atout fondamental de l’action publique. Car, ce n’est qu’enraciné dans sa culture et son histoire que l’Africain peut se réinventer une patrie qui libère des frontières nationales. D’où la pertinence de la coopération transfrontalière, une tentative d’endogénéisation des mécanismes d’intégration, une tentative pour mettre le développement local au service de l’intégration régionale. Elle devrait consacrer une seconde évolution stratégique de la CEDEAO. Créée le 28 mai 1975 à Lagos, la CEDEAO entendait rompre avec la balkanisation coloniale et doter la région d’un espace économique et social intégré. L’organisation prit dès 1990, une tournure ouvertement politique avec une flambée des conflits internes et ses interventions de maintien de la paix. La promotion de la coopération transfrontalière devrait donner à la CEDEAO, un second souffle. / Benin shares nearly 2000 km of borders with Nigeria, Togo, Niger and Burkina Faso. Cross- border dynamics, which are particulary important, highlight both the irrelevance of hastily- drawn colonial boundaries-barriers and of models of regional integration in West Africa. On the borders of neighbour states, economically, ethnically and culturally homogenous cross- border territories relativize the concept of border-line, without, however, eliminating institutional, administrative and political differences. These “floating” territories, characterized by an “in between” syndrome, have extraordinary potential for integration that could be feth implemented more in a decentralized administrative context. The question is that of strategies and modalities of regional integration in West Africa. The absence of political will cannot suffice to explain the emptiness of integration processes. This dissertation offers perspectives for defining a new matrix in international relations and public policies, in addition to traditional approaches to analyzing regional integration mechanisms in West Africa. The great challenge is to find ways for communities and identities that transcend national borders to flourish in a bottom-up logic, without ethnic fact or autonomous local dynamics being seen as challenging the sovereignty of states and their prerogatives. The deep cultural unity of the region is a fundamental asset for public action. Because it is only rooted in its culture and its history, the African can reinvent for himself a homeland free from national borders. Hence the relevance of cross-border cooperation, an attempt to endogenise integration mechanisms, an attempt to put local development at the service of regional integration. It should characterize a second strategic development of ECOWAS. Created on 28 May 1975 in Lagos, ECOWAS intended to break with colonial balkanization and to provide the region with an integrated economic and social area. As early as 1990, the organization took an overtly political turn with soaring internal conflicts and its peacekeeping interventions. Cross-border cooperation, which is a new concept in West Africa, should give ECOWAS a second hope.

Protestant missionaries from northern Germany began work in the Ewe-speaking area of West Africa (today divided between southwestern Togo and southeastern Ghana) in 1847. This guide is based on notes made by Rainer Alsheimer, with the addition of an index and a preface.

This thesis considers the relationship between Germany’s South-West African colony and its British South African counterparts (the Cape Colony, Natal, Rhodesia and, after the second Anglo-Boer War, the Orange River Colony, and the Transvaal) between 1883 and 1915. The chapters consider the complex and fraught relationship, including the British Government’s surprise and the Cape Government’s dismay following Germany’s establishment of the colony: the German public’s pro-Boer stance juxtaposed against the German Government’s refusal to intervene during the second Anglo-Boer War; the Cape Government’s dilemmas over whether to aid German South-West Africa (GSWA) during Germany’s quasi-genocidal campaigns against the Herero and the Nama; efforts to cooperate with German South-West Africa despite labour competition during the period of the unification of South Africa; and the period after 1910, when the diplomatic relationship became an affair of the Union of South Africa, which simultaneously pursued protectionist policy for South African trade, and bilateral cooperation concerning the diamond industry, as well as security along the border between 1911 and 1914. Finally, I consider the impact of the outbreak of the First World War, which saw Germany and GSWA offer support for an Afrikaner Rebellion to draw Britain’s attention away Europe and install a friendly government in South Africa, while also offering the Union an opportunity to conquer GSWA as part of its sub-imperial ambitions. Among the enduring themes are the interplay between political, economic and military developments, including border disputes, illicit trade, labour competition, and armed incursions led by non-state actors. In conclusion, I argue that as the idea of a South African federation progressed, it was driven in part by geopolitical factors and the desire to counter German imperialism. The British Government endorsed a South African union in part to create a South Africa strong enough to fend off German geopolitical threats. / Thesis (PhD (History))--University of Pretoria, 2021. / Historical and Heritage Studies / PhD (History) / Unrestricted

Directed by: Professor Meredith Rolfe What are the factors that contribute to peace after civil conflict? What are the factors that contribute to conflict recurrence after civil conflict? In this comparative analysis, Burkina Faso’s military coup in 1988 and Togo’s military coup from 1987-1990 provide two most similar cases that allow for a better understanding of what leads to peace or conflict recurrence. Colonial histories, economics, and natural resource mining are three major factors present in this comparative case analysis that explain why Burkina Faso’s conflict has ended with peace while Togo’s conflict has recurred. Through a colonial history analysis, the importance of colonial extractive institutions becomes clear in both the economic development and the patterns of conflict of each country. The institutions from the colonial administration in each state have shaped the institutions after independence. This has resulted in poor levels of development and ineffective institutions and systems of governance. Moreover, colonial asymmetric intervention and the resulting treatment of ethnic groups connects to post-independence ethnic inequalities and tensions that have fueled conflict recurrence in Togo. The clear ethnic oppression of the Kwa peoples in Togo has fueled the continuation of conflict. In comparison, the lack of clear ethnic oppression in Burkina Faso contributes to how peace developed after conflict. The economic analysis here presents the issues of how poor economic performance and lower levels of development can fuel conflict and vice versa. Both countries are underdeveloped and suffer from poor institutions. In addition to this, there are also issues regarding protectionism. Burkina Faso has very strong economic protections which have prevented serious issues of economic volatility, but these protective measures have also contributed to limited growth. Togo on the other hand has very few economic protections which have resulted in a highly volatile and vulnerable economy. Additionally, economic decision making and diagnostics in both governments are considered. In Togo, a poor economic diagnosis had resulted in a serious economic crisis before the start of the conflict. Burkina Faso on the other hand did not suffer from poor economic issue diagnostics and therefore did not suffer the same consequences. Finally, through an analysis of natural resource mining policies in both Burkina Faso and Togo, it become clear that there are very different opportunities for human development which is key in conflict prevention in this analysis. In Burkina Faso mining policies allow for better levels of human development while in Togo mining policies prevent opportunities for improved human development. Here, it becomes clear that economic growth is not as important as policies promoting human development in efforts to promote peace and prevent conflict recurrence. The combination of colonial histories, issues of economics and economic development, and mining policies are studied in this research to clarify why Togo experienced conflict recurrence while Burkina Faso had lasting peace. Clearly, economic growth as evidenced by the Togolese experience does not prevent conflict recurrence. Instead, better opportunities for human development and a more stable economy provided the basis for peace in Burkina Faso. Mining policy in Burkina Faso is the source of the opportunities for human development. Moreover, colonial histories account for institutional quality, ethnic divisions, and levels of development in both Togo and Burkina Faso. By addressing colonial histories and generating a better understanding of their impact on present-day societies, peace and conflict can be better addressed. Moreover, it becomes clear that opportunities for human development present themselves as a way to obtain peace after civil conflicts.

Shade trees’ implementation into cocoa agroforestry systems in tropical West Africa has proven to have a high potential in increasing farm resilience and mitigating climate change. However, no studies have yet examined the potential future climate suitability for shade trees in the region, which is important when deciding which shade trees to implement. The aim of this study was to predict the current and future climate suitability of shade trees currently used in cocoa agroforestry systems and give recommendations based on the results. It also aimed to examine how different levels of shadetree diversity can impact a farm’s microclimate and how this can be linked to climate suitability for cocoa. To assess climate suitability, a species distribution model was performed for a baseline scenario with the current climate defined as 1970-2000 and for two future scenarios, SSP126 and SSP585, for the time period 2041-2060. To measure microclimate, a microclimatic study was performed in the Ashanti region of Ghana on 16 farms during mid March to mid May 2023 measuring the maximum temperature above cocoa canopy and 15 cm above the ground for three different treatments. The results showed that three species, Khaya senegalensis, Ceiba pentandra and Albiziazygia, were predicted to have the largest habitat areas of climate suitability in West Africa for several of the scenarios. However, it was also identified that the model could be improved when it comes tothe inclusion of more bioclimatic variables, global circulation models (GCMs) and for which futures cenarios to model for. The microclimatic study showed that both farms with a low and high level of shade tree diversity have a significant possibility to buffer the maximum temperature above cocoa canopy, with low diversity farms having a larger buffering capacity. The study also showed that areaswhere several shade tree species are predicted to have a climatically suitable habitat decreased for future scenarios, which could be a risk for the possibility to mitigate climate change for cocoa with shade tree implementation in the future. / Att implementera skuggträd i kakaoskogslantbruk i tropiska Västafrika har visat sig ha en högpotential att öka resiliens på gårdar såväl som att motverka effekterna av klimatförändringar iregionen. Däremot har inga tidigare studier hittills undersökt vilka skuggträdsarter som väntas varalämpliga i framtida klimat. Syftet med den här studien var att uppskatta nutida och framtidalämplighet för skuggträd som nu används i kakaoskogslantbruk och ge rekommendationer utifrånresultaten. Studien hade också som syfte att undersöka hur olika nivåer av diversitet av skuggträd på gårdarna påverkade deras mikroklimat samt hur detta kan kopplas till klimatlämplighet för kakao. Klimatlämplighet uppskattades med en distributionsmodell (eng: “species distribution model”), med ett basscenario för nutida klimat satt som 1970-2000 samt med två framtida klimatscenarier, SSP126 och SSP585, för tidsperioden 2041-2060. Mikroklimat mättes genom en fältstudie som genomfördes på 16 gårdar i Ashantiregionen i Ghana under perioden mitten av mars till mitten av maj. Mikroklimatet mättes för den maximalt uppnådda temperaturen ovanför kakaoträdens lövverk och 15 cm ovanför marken. Resultaten visade att tre arter, Khaya senegalensis, Ceiba pentandra och Albiziazygia, hade störst område där de var lämpliga för flest klimatscenarier i Västafrika. Dessutom identifierades flera sätt att förbättra modellen, bland annat genom att inkludera fler bioklimatiska variabler, fler globala cirkulationsmodeller (GCMs) och genom att förutspå utvecklingen för fler framtida klimatscenarier. För mikroklimat visade resultaten att både en hög och låg diversitet av skuggträd resulterade i att den maximala temperaturen minskade ovanför skuggträdens lövverk, och den minskade mer där diversiteten var låg. Resultaten visade även att för framtida klimatscenarier minskar områdena där flera skuggträd är lämpliga, vilket kan vara problematiskt för möjligheten att bemöta klimatförändringar i framtiden genom skuggträdsimplementering.

Trotz ihrer zunehmenden wissenschaftlichen und praktischen Bedeutung sind die Zusammenhänge zwischen Umwelt und Friedenskonsolidierung (engl. peacebuilding) noch wenig erforscht. Während in der Forschungsliteratur mehrere Möglichkeiten identifiziert werden, wie gemeinsam genutzte natürliche Ressourcen als Katalysatoren für den Frieden zwischen Konfliktparteien fungieren können, gibt es kaum empirische Belege für eine direkte Verbindung zwischen Umweltkooperation und nachhaltigem Frieden. Diese Dissertation untersucht umweltbezogene Friedenskonsolidierung (engl. environmental peacebuilding) und vertieft das theoretische Verständnis des Phänomens durch eine systematische Übersicht des Forschungsstands sowie zwei empirische Fallstudien. Auf diese Weise trägt die vorliegende Arbeit zur dringend benötigten konzeptionellen Schärfung und gleichzeitig zu einem empirisch fundierten Verständnis von Environmental Peacebuilding bei. Die Dissertation ist kumulativ aufgebaut und besteht aus drei Forschungsarbeiten. Das erste Paper befasst sich mit den Bausteinen des Environmental Peacebuilding und nimmt eine Bestandsaufnahme des Phänomens vor. Es schlägt Wege und Möglichkeiten vor, wie der Fokus von Umweltkonflikten auf Umweltkooperation und Frieden verlagert werden kann. Die beiden Fallstudien basieren auf qualitativen Methoden und untersuchen, wie Environmental Peacebuilding in zwei unterschiedlichen Kontexten, dem Nahen Osten und Westafrika, abläuft. Mit diesen beiden Arbeiten leistet die Dissertation einen empirischen Beitrag zur Environmental-Peacebuilding-Forschung und schließt eklatante Forschungslücken insbesondere hinsichtlich der Rolle von lokalen Gemeinschaften und privaten Akteuren im Environmental Peacebuilding. / Despite their increasing prominence in both research and practice, the interlinkages between the biophysical environment and peacebuilding remain under-researched. While the literature identifies several mechanisms through which shared natural resources can function as catalysts for peace between conflicting parties, empirical evidence asserting a direct link between environmental cooperation and sustainable peace remains scarce. This dissertation examines environmental peacebuilding. It does so by providing a better theoretical understanding of the phenomenon through a literature review and two empirical case studies. In so doing, this dissertation provides much needed conceptual clarity as well as empirical evidence on environmental peacebuilding. This dissertation is cumulative and consists of three research papers. The first paper deals with the building blocks of environmental peacebuilding and takes stock of the phenomenon. It proposes a coherent framework through which focus can be shifted from environmental conflicts to environmental cooperation and peace thereby also adding to the ‘how’ of environmental peacebuilding. The two case studies are based on qualitative methods. They explore how environmental peacebuilding unrolls in two different contexts, the Middle East and West Africa. With these two papers, this dissertation contributes empirical evidence to the environmental peacebuilding literature and fills gaps in the research, especially concerning the role of local communities and private actors in environmental peacebuilding processes.

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Les actes de consommation réalisés au moyen de la téléphonie mobile prolifèrent en Afrique de l’Ouest et à bien des égards, leur appréhension par le droit apparaît incohérente. Un hiatus s’observe donc entre l’encadrement juridique des contrats de consommation mobile et leur réalité pratique de conclusion. Tel est le constat de notre recherche qui se propose par ailleurs de relever les difficultés applicatives du droit tenant aux spécificités techno-ergonomiques du média ainsi qu’aux pratiques contractuelles adolescentes des professionnels. Plus spécifiquement, il est question d’analyser la formalisation légale du processus contractuel de la consommation mobile à l’aune de la pratique en contexte de téléphonie mobile. À l’évidence, il s’observe une désarticulation entre le droit et les faits. Mais, comment corriger ce hiatus ? Prenant appui sur la théorie du droit en contexte, notre recherche soumet l’hypothèse d’un processus contractuel intégré dont le but principal est de permettre le rapprochement entre le « conçu » législatif et « vécu » contractuel. Cette hypothèse suppose que des correctifs tenant compte de l’architecture du média soient apportés sur le plan législatif et que de nouvelles voies pour des pratiques moins pathologiques soient explorées. / In West Africa, consumer acts carried out by means of mobile telephony are proliferating, and in many respects, the law's approach to them appears inconsistent. There is therefore a gap between the legal framework for mobile consumer contracts and the practical reality of their conclusion. This is the finding of our research, which also sets out to identify the difficulties in applying the law to the specific techno-ergonomic features of the medium, as well as to the adolescent contractual practices of professionals. More specifically, the aim is to analyze the legal formalization of the contractual process of mobile consumption in the light of practice in the mobile telephony context. Clearly, there is a gap between law and practice. But how can this hiatus be corrected? Based on the theory of law in context, our research hypothesizes an integrated contractual process whose main aim is to reconcile the legislative "conceived" and the contractual "lived". This hypothesis presupposes that corrective action is taken at the legislative level, considering the architecture of the medium, and that new avenues for less pathological practices are explored.

La linguistique historique et comparative joue un rôle important dans l’étude de l’histoire culturelle des sociétés. Dans ce cadre, certains spécialistes se basent sur la méthode de reconstruction lexicale « Wörter und Sachen » (Mots et Choses). Afin de répondre aux problèmes qui se présentent lors de l’application de cette méthodologie, nous avons jugé utile d’étudier le vocabulaire lié à une technique récente dont l’histoire est assez bien connue. Une étude pareille montre comment le lexique s’est constitué et identifie les traces laissées éventuellement par l’histoire de la technique elle-même. Le choix s’est porté sur le lexique de la fonte de l’aluminium en zarma et en hausa du Niger. La recherche témoigne d’une approche empirique et sociolinguistique et l’étude des vocabulaires est abordée partant du principe onomasiologique du changement lexical. Le cœur du travail consiste en l’analyse des vocabulaires récoltés sur le terrain suivant une typologie nouvelle du changement lexical. Une description synthétique des deux langues est fournie afin de permettre au lecteur de se familiariser avec ces systèmes linguistiques. L’étude de quelques cas particuliers montre comment les aspects sociaux influencent indéniablement la constitution des lexiques. La comparaison des lexiques de la fonte dans les langues du Niger avec ceux qui ont été observés dans d’autres langues de l’Afrique occidentale donne l’opportunité de réfléchir sur la nature du vocabulaire de la fonte de façon plus générale. Dans la dernière partie de l’étude d’autres lexiques techniques sont pris en compte afin de progresser vers une théorie plus globale. /Historical and comparative linguistics plays an important role in the study of a society’s cultural history. In this context, some specialists follow the method of lexical reconstruction "Wörter und Sachen" (Words and Things). In order to deal with the problems that occur in the application of this methodology, we found it useful to study the lexicon of a recent technique for which the history is quite well known. Such a research shows how the vocabulary is constituted and identifies the traces that might be left by the history of the technique itself. We chose the vocabulary of aluminium casting in Zarma and Hausa of Niger. The study testifies of an empirical and sociolinguistic approach, while the vocabulary is explored starting from the onomasiological principal of lexical change. The main part consists of an analysis of the vocabularies collected in the field through a new typology of lexical change. In order to give the reader the occasion to familiarise with the linguistic system of the two languages, a brief grammatical description is given. The study of some particular cases shows how social aspects influence the constitution of the lexicon. The comparison of the casting vocabularies in the languages of Niger with those observed in other West-African countries gives the opportunity to reflect upon the nature of casting vocabulary on a larger scale. The last part of the study takes into account other technical vocabularies in order to develop a global theory.