Based on the author's Ph. D thesis. / Published by York Medieval Press in association with Boydell & Brewer and the Centre for Medieval Studies, University of York. Includes bibliographical references and index.

The role of the new media in young people’s lives has led to a debate about the potential of the internet as a means of influencing identity formation and youth participation. A growing body of academic research has shown an interest in understanding this influence. This thesis sets out to study political participation as a form of online engagement through the use of the various new media platforms and how it may affect the process of identity development of Arab youth in Britain. Prior to the recent political developments in the Middle East and the so-called ‘Arab Spring’, British Arab youth were suffering identity uncertainty and had expressed little interest in political participation. During the early stages of the Arab Spring, British Arab youth became involved, in one way or another, in political activities, mainly online. This research combines quantitative and qualitative methodologies in order to achieve accurate results. The targeted group for this study is those between 18 and 25 years old, who were born in Britain or have been living continuously in Britain for at least 10 years. Data collected includes a total of 178 questionnaire samples, and forty individual semi-structured interviews. The core argument of this study is that British Arab youth are willing to participate in politics as long as it is meaningful to them and to the people of their countries of origin. This engagement helps them to balance their cultural identity (Arab) with the host culture (British). That may not contradict with the fact that British Arab youth describe Britain as ‘home’ with confidence. In fact, the balance between Arab and British cultures serves as a stabiliser in the process of identity formation and reformation. The thesis also explores how this active political engagement is reflected, in general, on their own identity construction and development. The evidences of this study suggest that, while online media has a role in providing British Arab youth with accessible and effective online tools, the mechanism of participating and debating all issues without reservation, may contradict the cultural heritage of stepping back from political participation. Therefore, this research affirms the importance of online media tools for British Arab youth reaching new horizons. Participating in political activities is one form of negotiating identity formation or reformation, that in one way or another can contribute to a more effective role of the British Arab community in the public, political and cultural spheres of multicultural Britain.

Abstract The prevalence of overweight and obesity among adolescents has increased worldwide at the population-level, reflecting inactive lifestyle and excessive energy intake. The comorbidities of obesity, e.g. impaired glucose tolerance and high blood pressure increase the risk for cardiovascular diseases. The first manifestation of cardiovascular diseases can be detected in young adulthood, and prevention should be focused to those at highest risk. This study was aimed to evaluate the changes in body weight and body composition, physical fitness and cardiometabolic risk factors, associated with physical exercise during military service. Furthermore, this study investigated the association of antenatal and lifestyle factors with the body composition and physical fitness among young men. The material of this study consisted of 1046 men (mean age 19.2 years) who began their compulsory military service in the Sodankylä Jaeger Brigade in 2005. The conscripts’ cardiometabolic risk factors, body weight, body composition, fitness, and lifestyle habits were evaluated at baseline and after 6–12 months military service. The data on the participants’ mothers’ antenatal and participants’ childhood period was available for 508 offsprings, who belonged to the 1986 Northern Finland Birth Cohort. During the military service the prevalence of metabolic syndrome decreased in the overall cohort from 6.1% to 3.6%, and the reduction was present among overweight and obese conscripts. The reduction in metabolic syndrome was associated with the reduction in waist circumference, weight loss and improvement in muscle fitness. Some lifestyle factors e.g. maternal smoking during pregnancy and conscripts’ smoking, alcohol consumption and binge drinking were associated with the conscripts’ body composition and fitness test results. Military service was especially beneficial for those reporting weekly binge drinking, who showed the greatest reduction in body weight and fat, and improvements in physical fitness and lifestyle habits. This study shows that unbeneficial lifestyle habits can be seen as detrimental to the body composition and fitness levels of young men. Furthermore, the physical exercise is in important role for reducing the metabolic syndrome, already present in young men. Maternal smoking during pregnancy was associated with reduced aerobic fitness in the subjects, underlining its long-standing consequences on offspring’s health. / Tiivistelmä Väestötutkimusten perusteella nuorten ylipaino ja lihavuus ovat yleistyneet, liittyen inaktiiviseen elämäntapaan ja liialliseen energiansaantiin. Lihavuuden liitännäissairaudet, kuten heikentynyt sokerinsieto ja kohonnut verenpaine lisäävät riskiä sydän- ja verisuonisairauksille. Sydän- ja verisuonisairauksien ensimmäiset ilmentymät voidaan havaita nuorella aikuisiällä ja sairauden ehkäisystrategiat tulisi kohdentaa riskiryhmiin. Tässä tutkimuksessa arvioitiin varusmiespalvelukseen liittyvän liikunnan aikaansaamia muutoksia kehonpainossa, kehonkoostumuksessa, fyysisessä kunnossa sekä sydän- ja verisuonisairauksien riskitekijöissä. Lisäksi tutkimus arvioi äidin raskausaikaan liittyvien tekijöiden ja elintapojen yhteyttä nuorten miesten kehonkoostumukseen ja fyysiseen kuntoon. Tutkimusaineisto koostui 1046 miehestä (keski-ikä 19.2 vuotta), jotka astuivat varusmiespalvelukseen Sodankylän Jääkäriprikaatissa vuonna 2005. Varusmiesten sydän- ja verisuonisairauksien riskitekijät, kehonpaino, kehonkoostumus, kunto ja elintavat arvioitiin palveluksen alussa ja lopussa (seuranta-aika 6–12 kk). Varusmiesten äitien raskaudenaikaiset ja varusmiesten varhaislapsuuden tiedot olivat käytettävissä 508:lta tutkittavalta, jotka kuuluivat Pohjois-Suomen syntymäkohorttiin 1986. Varusmiespalveluksen aikana metabolisen oireyhtymän vallitsevuus väheni koko aineistossa 6.1 %:sta 3.6 %:iin, ja väheneminen oli havaittavissa ylipainoisten ja lihavien joukossa. Metabolisen oireyhtymän väheneminen oli yhteydessä vyötärönympäryksen ja painon laskuun sekä lihaskunnon paranemiseen. Elintavat, kuten äidin raskaudenaikainen tupakointi ja varusmiehen ruokavalio, tupakointi, alkoholin kulutus ja humalahakuinen juominen olivat yhteydessä varusmiehen kehonkoostumukseen ja fyysiseen kuntoon. Varusmiespalveluksesta hyötyivät erityisesti ne, jotka raportoivat viikoittaista humalahakuista juomista; heillä havaittiin myönteisiä muutoksia kehonkoostumuksessa, fyysisessä kunnossa ja elintavoissa. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella voidaan myös todeta, että äidin raskaudenaikainen tupakointi vaikuttaa jälkeläisen heikompaan aerobiseen kuntoon. Tutkimus osoittaa epäterveellisten elämäntapojen vaikutukset epäedulliseen kehonkoostumukseen ja heikompaan fyysiseen kuntoon nuorilla miehillä. Lisäksi liikunnan merkitys nuorten miesten sydän- ja verisuonisairauksien riskitekjöiden hoidossa on oleellista.

Abstract Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of obesity-related cardiometabolic risk factors. It predicts the development of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes, which are major public health concerns. Visceral obesity and insulin resistance are the predominant underlying factors of MetS, other diagnostic components being elevated blood pressure, high triglycerides, and low HDL-cholesterol. The most important treatment of MetS is through lifestyle changes. There are limited data concerning the prevalence of MetS among young populations. Furthermore, even though the effects of physical activity on MetS components are well established at an individual basis and in some subpopulations, large population-based data about associations of young men’s fitness and MetS-related cardiometabolic risk factor changes are warranted. In Finland, military service is compulsory for males. In 2005, 1,160 young men (mean age 19.2 years, range 18–28 years) were followed throughout their military service (6–12 months) in the Sodankylä Jaeger Brigade. The military service period includes high amounts of physical exercise, but no dietary restrictions. Physical fitness, anthropometrics, body composition, and cardiometabolic risk factors were assessed at the beginning and at the end of military service. Among the entire study population, the prevalence of MetS was 3.5–6.8 %, depending on the definition used, and increased in parallel with an increasing body mass index. On the average, the military training period resulted in a decrease in body weight and amount of fat tissue, especially visceral fat, and improved physical fitness. Body composition and fitness improvements were more pronounced in overweight and obese service men. Beneficial changes in body composition and related cardiovascular risk factor improvements were associated with increased physical fitness, especially aerobic fitness. This study indicates that an improvement in physical fitness is related to improvements in body fat distribution and cardiovascular health at population level in young men. This is an age when co-morbidities are usually as yet non-existing, but might be most efficiently prevented by lifestyle changes, such as becoming physically active. / Tiivistelmä Metabolinen oireyhtymä on tyypin 2 diabeteksen ja valtimosairauksien riskitekijäryväs. Sen osatekijöitä vyötärölihavuuden lisäksi ovat kohonnut verenpaine, insuliiniresistenssi, korkea veren triglyseridipitoisuus ja HDL-kolesterolin pitoisuus. Viime vuosina metabolinen oireyhtymä on yleistynyt lihavuuden lisääntymisen myötä. Lihavuuden ja sen liitännäissairauksien tärkeimpiä hoitokeinoja ovat laihtumiseen tähtäävät elintapamuutokset. Liikunnan tiedetään johtavan edullisiin kehonkoostumusmuutoksiin sekä kardiovaskulaaririskitekijöiden parantumiseen. Laajat väestötason tutkimukset nuorten aikuisten kunnon ja varhaisten valtimosairausriskitekijöitten muutosten välisistä yhteyksistä kuitenkin puuttuvat. Varusmiespalvelus tarjoaa ainutlaatuisen mahdollisuuden tarkastella nuoria miehiä laajassa, lähes valikoitumattomassa väestöotoksessa, sillä Suomessa varusmiespalvelus on pakollinen kaikille miehille. Vuonna 2005 1160 miestä (keski-ikä 19,2 vuotta, vaihteluväli 18–28 vuotta) astui palvelukseen Sodankylän jääkäriprikaatissa. Kehonkoostumus, fyysinen kunto, antropometria sekä veren rasva-arvot mitattiin varusmiespalveluksen (6–12 kk) alussa ja lopussa. Metabolisen oireyhtymän vallitsevuus oli 3,5–6,8 % käytetystä määritelmästä riippuen. Se oli yleisempi korkeimmissa painoindeksiluokissa. Keskimäärin koko aineistossa varusmiesten paino laski, kehon rasvan määrä väheni ja kunto parani palvelusaikana. Edulliset muutokset fyysisessä kunnossa ja kehon koostumuksessa korostuivat ylipainoisilla ja lihavilla varusmiehillä. Nämä muutokset, erityisesti painon ja sisälmysrasvan väheneminen, olivat yhteydessä kestävyyskunnon paranemiseen. Vastaavasti kardiovaskulaaririskitekijöiden edulliset muutokset olivat yhteydessä erityisesti kestävyyskunnon paranemiseen ja vyötärölihavuuden vähenemiseen. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella voidaan todeta, että nuorten miesten valtimosairauksien riskitekijöiden muutos on yhteydessä fyysisen kunnon nousuun. Nuoret miehet tulee saada lisäämään vapaa-ajan liikuntaa myös siviilielämässä. Keski-iässä yleistyvät valtimosairaudet ja diabetes voisivat olla huomattavissa määrin torjuttavissa vaikuttamalla nuorten miesten liikuntatottumuksiin.

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Brand loyalty is a common theme throughout consumer and market research, yet it has not been a major topic among anthropologists. The research presented here is an anthropological exploration of the social and cultural influences on how a unique demographic - millennial males - view their own loyalty to brands. Through the use of qualitative interviews and online surveys, participants provided insight in to how they viewed their favorite brands and how those brands fit in to their lives. After analysis was done on these interviews a number of themes and degrees of attachment were identified and discussed.

Sex education through the public school system has been identified by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as an excellent vehicle by which HIV prevention education can be presented to students, thereby decreasing the rate of HIV infection among young men who have sex with men (YMSM). However, YMSM continue to be at high risk for HIV infection in the United States despite educational efforts to prevent infection. The purpose of this qualitative study using a phenomenological approach was to explore what impact school-based HIV prevention education had on YMSM in the past, and what effect that education has had on their current sexual behaviors. The theoretical foundation for this study was the health belief model. Individual 1-hour interviews were conducted with 13 YMSM (ages 21-35) who received HIV prevention education in California. Interviews were analyzed for common themes using a phenomenological approach. Results of this study suggest that participants were not utilizing safer techniques taught in the school HIV prevention education because there was a lack of curriculum consistency, LGBTQ content, and classroom management, and the impact of stigma and homophobia on YMSM. These results support the health belief model. Findings support that positive social change can be achieved by providing standardized, all-inclusive, non-judgmental, HIV prevention education program, in a classroom environment where it is safe to receive same-sex sexual information. This should decrease the number of HIV+ test results among YMSM.

The main purpose of this study is to investigate how we can understand the correlation between social vulnerability and crime among young men with a foreign background. I intend to highlight the reality of the everyday life of six convicted young men shortly before they committed criminal acts as I aim to understand the influence of socioeconomic risk factors in their lives. The selected research method is a qualitative text analysis based on a true criminal case which occurred in a disadvantaged Stockholm suburb. The selected young men who appear in this study are aged between 17-21 and were among the main suspects. The empirical data consists of verbatim transcripts of interrogation interviews with police investigators and the court verdict. The study’s results have been analyzed based on the theory of dynamics of human behavior and on the basis of risk factors. The results show that all the young men have poor school results, poor communication with their family and that all live in cramped housing conditions that does not offer enough opportunity for private space. Several of the young men lack income and employment and are financially supported by family members. In summary, the results show that the social risk factors that occur in their lives are similar and that their current life situation is a result of the social existence in which they reside.

Introduktion: Psykisk ohälsa är ett alarmerande globalt folkhälsoproblem. Undersökningar visar att män skattar sin hälsa högre än kvinnor och söker vård i lägre utsträckning för mentala hälsoproblem. Paradoxalt nog är män överrepresenterade i självmordsstatistiken. Det har visat sig finnas ett samband mellan psykisk ohälsa och sociokulturella mönster gällande könsuttryck. Mycket pekar på att en bidragande orsak är snäva normer för maskulinitet och traditionell maskulinitet kan kopplas till självmordstankar och verkar samverka med flertalet stressorer som förstärker självmordstankarna. Syfte: Syftet med studien är att beskriva vad i unga mäns upplevelser, relaterat till maskulinitet, kan förenas med ökad risk för psykisk ohälsa och självmord. Metod: En strukturerad litteraturstudie har gjorts vilken inkluderade både kvalitativ och kvantitativ forskning. Databas som användes var: MEDLINE; EBSCO. Analysmetoden var tematisk analys. Resultat: Unga män upplevde att de var under hög press att följa traditionella begränsande och restriktiva könsnormer för manlighet. Det var tydligt att männen också upplevde svårigheter med att leva upp till idealet. Utebliven framgång att uppnå de hegemoniska idealen av maskulinitet sågs som en av de främsta anledningarna till att fler män än kvinnor tar sina liv. Slutsats: Den här studien har lett fram till insikter att det finns ett stort behov av att utveckla strategier för självsmordprevention hos unga män. Insatserna behöver vara specifikt inriktade på att minska det maskulina idealets inverkan på psykisk ohälsa och självmord för att bana sig väg igenom barriärer som gör att män inte vill söka emotionellt stöd eller vård för psykisk ohälsa utan istället tar sitt liv. / Introduction: Mental illness is an alarming global public health problem. Surveys show that men rate their health higher than women and seek health care to a lesser extent for mental health problems. Paradoxically, men are overrepresented in the suicide statistics. It has shown that you have to use a connection between mental illness and socio-cultural patterns of gender expression. Many points to make a contribution cause are tight norms for masculinity and traditional masculinity can be linked to suicidal thoughts and works interact with the majority of stressors that reinforce suicidal thoughts. Aim: The purpose of the study is to describe what of young men’s experiences, related to masculinity, can be associated with an increased risk of mental illness and suicide. Method: A structured literature study was conducted which included both qualitative and quantitative research. Databases used were: MEDLINE; EBSCO. The method of analysis was thematic analysis. Results: Young men felt that they were under high pressure to follow traditional restrictive and restrictive gender norms for masculinity. It was clear that the men also experienced difficulties in living up to the ideal. Failure to achieve the hegemonic ideals of masculinity was seen as one of the main reasons why more men than women take their lives. Conclusion: This study has led to the realization that there is a need to develop suicide prevention strategies in young men. The efforts must be specifically focused on reducing the masculine ideal in works on mental ill-health and suicide in order to pave their way through barriers that see that one does not want to feel the feeling as support or care for mental ill-health but instead takes one's life.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Development Studies, 2017 / HIV/AIDS is a social epidemic that continues to impact the lives of countless young people in Southern Africa and possibly poses one of the biggest threats to adolescent health and sexuality; and is one of the main challenges faced by youth in their transition to adulthood. However, despite the fifteenth year running of the South African government’s HIV/AIDS programme, prevalence rates continue to increase annually pointing to disjuncture between government intervention and the causal mechanisms involved in the spread of HIV/AIDS. Furthermore, literature on men’s sexuality in Southern Africa remains embedded within a ‘predatory masculinity and female vulnerability’ paradigm which results in a gendered analysis of HIV/AIDS and a side-lining of the male perspective which then places young men at a high risk of HIV infection. Therefore, in an attempt to understand the disconnect between literature and high prevalence rates; and to contribute to a better understanding of men’s health and sexuality, a qualitative study using focus group discussions and in-depth interviews was conducted amongst young black heterosexual men (19- 25 years old) to discover the factors that determine condom use among young men living in an RDP housing settlement in Daveyton on the East Rand of Johannesburg. The research findings show that condom use in the sample is predicated upon the young black heterosexual men’s definition of masculinity, the nature of the sexual relationship and sexual partner, and – to a lesser extent - the social accessibility of the condom. As they move from adolescence to adulthood, there is a transition of their understanding of masculinity from one characterized by promiscuous sexual behavior where the use of condoms is seen to diminish the degree of one’s masculinity, to a masculinity fostered by responsible sexual behaviour and accompanied by condom use. The study also found that young men expressed a distance from the supposedly hegemonic view of violent masculinity and male dominance in sexual relationships and that the search for love and the ability to provide for one’s partner was what was most valued in young men’s self -conception of masculinity and sexuality. This then negatively impacted condom usage in romantic relationships as such relationships were perceived to contain less risk and it was assumed that they are predicated on trust; positing love as the biggest barrier to condom use. Furthermore, the study found that although condoms are physically and economically accessible, they are not socially accessible due to the stigma attached to sexual activity among adolescents – which results in a barrier to condom usage. Therefore, findings suggest that the government’s condom promotion programmes - based on the tenets of education (on the subject of pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases) and physical accessibility of condoms - are largely inconsistent with the factors that determine condom use among young men. This implies that there is a need to develop tailored condom promotion programmes targeted at male sexuality / XL2018