The transition in the transport sector by the integration of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) brings a new challenge for the system operators to ensure the balance between supply and demand. The installation of new EV charges poses a surge in electricity demand in the coming years which jeopardizes the grid reliability and stability. With the new EV policies in place, Sweden will have a huge growth of BEVs and the associated charging infrastructures. The challenges faced by the electricity transmission and distribution will depend on the type and smart capability of the infrastructure. Therefore, research is conducted to analyze the impacts of the mix of public and private residential EV charging and how smart charging can help in mitigating the impacts. This thesis studies the impact of the mix of private residential and public EV chargers on the power network of Hammarby Sjöstad, a neighborhood of Stockholm. Four substations out of 20 corresponding to the areas with the highest proportion in the residential and commercial sectors in the network were chosen for the study and power flow analysis was carried out to analyze the impacts in the year 2025. EV chargers were categorized into public and private residential chargers. The public chargers had rated power of 22 kW each while residential chargers were rated at 3.68 kW each. EVs can behave as energy vectors, and it is possible to optimize their charging as a part of demand-side management which includes peak shaving or shifting. Optimizing EV charging was treated as a mixed integer linear programming (MILP) problem to schedule EV charging for both reducing losses and the cost of electricity import from the grid. Two optimization strategies were investigated to analyze their potential to reduce the peaks due to uncontrolled charging. Renewable energy generation from solar PVs integrated with EV chargers reduces the import of electricity from the grid during the day which not only reduced the losses but also the cost of importing electricity from the grid. The effect of intermittency of solar PV generation was reduced by implementing BESS. At low price periods, the BESS was charged using the excess PV power and at higher price periods, the BESS was discharged. Three scenarios were developed, where the Reference scenario refers to the base case without PV and BESS, With PV scenario considered only PV generation while With PVBESS scenario considered the implementation of BESS with PV. Three test cases were simulated for each of the scenarios, and it was found that by the implementation of smart charging, the losses in the network reduce by 35.5% and it also significantly reduced the losses in all the other scenarios. Implementation of smart charging reduced the cost of electricity import from the grid by 4.3%. The integration of PV generation led to a 7% further reduction in the losses and cost of electricity import as compared to the Reference scenario. The integration of BESS increased the losses in the network, but it also enhanced the self-consumption of PV power. The implementation of smart charging not only reduces the losses and costs of import but will lead to savings in grid reinforcement costs. / Övergången inom transportsektorn genom integrering av batteri -elektriska fordon (BEV) medför en ny utmaning för systemoperatörerna att säkerställa balansen mellan utbud och efterfrågan. Installationen av nya elavgifter innebär en kraftig ökning av elbehovet under de kommande åren, vilket äventyrar nätets tillförlitlighet och stabilitet. Med den nya EV -politiken på plats kommer Sverige att ha en enorm tillväxt av BEV och tillhörande ladd infrastrukturer. Utmaningarna för elöverföring och distribution beror på infrastrukturens typ och smarta kapacitet. Därför forskas för att analysera effekterna av blandningen av offentliga och privata EV -laddningar för bostäder och hur smart laddning kan hjälpa till att mildra effekterna. Denna avhandling studerar effekten av blandningen av privata bostäder och offentliga EV -laddare på kraftnätet i Hammarby Sjöstad, en stadsdel i Stockholm. Fyra transformatorstationer av 20 motsvarande de områden med den högsta andelen inom bostads- och kommersiella sektorer i nätet valdes ut för undersökningen och effektflödesanalys utfördes för att analysera effekterna år 2025. EV -laddare kategoriserades offentligt och privata bostadsladdare. De offentliga laddarna hade en nominell effekt på 22 kW vardera medan bostadsladdare var 3,68 kW vardera. Elbilar kan bete sig som energivektorer, och det är möjligt att optimera laddningen som en del av hanteringen på efterfrågesidan som inkluderar topprakning eller växling. Optimering av EV -laddning behandlades som ett blandat heltal linjärt programmeringsproblem (MILP) för att schemalägga EV -laddning för både minskning av förluster och kostnader för elimport från nätet. Två optimeringsstrategier undersöktes för att analysera deras potential att minska topparna på grund av okontrollerad laddning. Förnybar energiproduktion från solcellsanläggningar integrerade med EV -laddare minskar importen av el från nätet under dagen vilket inte bara minskade förlusterna utan också kostnaderna för att importera el från nätet. Effekten av intermittency av solcellsgenerering genererades genom att implementera BESS. Vid lågprisperioder debiterades BESS med överskott av PV -effekt och vid högre prisperioder laddades BESS ur. Tre scenarier utvecklades, där referensscenariot hänvisar till basfallet utan PV och BESS, med PV -scenario endast betraktat PV -generering medan With PVBESS -scenario övervägde implementeringen av BESS med PV. Tre testfall simulerades för vart och ett av scenarierna, och det visade sig att genom implementering av smart laddning minskar förlusterna i nätverket med 35,5% och det minskade också avsevärt i alla andra scenarier. Genomförandet av smart laddning minskade kostnaden för elimport från nätet med 4,3%. Integrationen av PV -produktion ledde till en ytterligare minskning av förlusterna och kostnaderna för elimport med 7% jämfört med referensscenariot. Integrationen av BESS ökade förlusterna i nätet, men det förbättrade också självförbrukningen av PV-kraft. Genomförandet av smart laddning minskar inte bara förluster och kostnader vid import utan leder till besparingar i nätförstärkningskostnader.

As the share of weather-dependent renewable energy sources increases in the energy system, more grid balancing solutions are needed. For companies investing in energy production facilities, this offers new business opportunities. This master's thesis examines a battery energy storage system (BESS) co-located with a wind farm and utilizing its existing grid connection. The profitability of the battery system investment is evaluated using Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and Payback time (PBT). In the analysis, the revenue of the battery system consists of capacity (MW) payments from reserve markets. The profitability of the battery system is studied in both the annual and hourly markets. The report compares the results to those of a standalone battery system to understand the advantages of utilizing the same grid connection. Finally, the investment is analysed further using scenario analysis on the annual degradation and the market price levels. The battery capacity is sized according to the maximum NPV. The results indicate that both the co-located BESS and the standalone BESS are potential investment targets, but the co-located BESS utilizing the wind farm's grid connection offers better returns. The reason for this is that the cost of a new grid connection for a standalone BESS is higher than the revenue lost due to capacity constraints when utilizing the existing grid connection. Hourly reserve markets offer better returns than annual reserve markets. Annual markets yielded an internal rate of return of 9 % and a net present value of 350 kEUR, while hourly markets yielded an internal rate of return of 22 % and a net present value over 10 times higher compared to the annual market returns. The optimal sizing of the battery capacity is found to be between 30 and 40 % of the wind park’s production capacity, or in this case 4-5 MW. / Med en ökande andel väderberoende förnybara källor i energisystemet behövs fler lösningar för att behålla balansen i elnätet. Detta erbjuder nya affärsmöjligheter för energiföretag som vill investera i energilagringslösningar. Denna uppsats undersöker ett batterisystem som är beläget vid en vindpark och utnyttjar en befintlig nätanslutning. En ekonomisk analys med nettonuvärdesmetoden (NPV), internräntemetoden (IRR) samt återbetalningstiden (PBT) av batterisystemet utförs för att utvärdera investeringspotentialen. I analysen består intäkterna från batterisystemet av kapacitetsbetalningar från reservmarknader. Lönsamheten för batterilagringssystemet undersöks både på årsmarknader och timmarknader. Rapporten jämför resultaten med ett fristående batterilagringssystem för att förstå fördelarna med att utnyttja samma nätanslutning. Slutligen analyseras investeringen med hjälp av scenarioanalys för olika marknadsprisnivåer samt årliga försämringstakter. Batterikapaciteten dimensioneras enligt det maximala nettonuvärdet. Resultaten visade att både batterilagringssystemet som utnyttjar vindkraftparkens nätanslutning och det fristående batterilagringssystemet är potentiella investeringsobjekt, men batterilagringssystemet som utnyttjar vindkraftparkens nätanslutning erbjuder bättre avkastning. Anledningen till detta är att kostnaden för en ny nätanslutning för ett fristående batterilagringssystem är högre än de inkomstförluster som orsakas av kapacitetsbegränsningar vid utnyttjandet av den befintliga nätanslutningen. Timreservmarknader erbjuder bättre avkastning än årsreservmarknader. Årsmarknaderna genererade en internränta på 9 % och ett nuvärde på 350 kEUR, medan timmarknaderna genererade en internränta på 22 % och över 10 gånger högre nuvärde jämfört med årsmarknaderna. Den optimala dimensioneringen av batterikapaciteten bedöms vara 30–40 % av vindkraftparkens produktionskapacitet, vilket i detta fall är 4–5 MW. / Sääriippuvaisen uusiutuvien energiatuotantomuotojen osuuden kasvaessa energiajärjestelmässä tarvitaan lisää verkontasapainotusratkaisuja. Energiatuotantolaitoksiin investointeja tekeville yrityksille tämä tarjoaa uusia liiketoimintamahdollisuuksia. Tämä diplomityö tarkastelee akkujärjestelmää, joka sijaitsee tuulivoimapuiston ohessa ja hyödyntää olemassa olevaa verkkoliityntää. Akkujärjestelmän investoinnin kannattavuutta arvioidaan hyödyntäen nettonykyarvoa (NPV), sisäistä korkoa (IRR) sekä takaisinmaksuaikaa (PBT). Analyysissä akkujärjestelmän tulot koostuvat reservimarkkinoiden kapasiteettimaksuista. Akkujärjestelmän kannattavuutta tutkitaan sekä vuosimarkkinoilla että tuntimarkkinoilla. Raportissa verrataan tuloksia itsenäisen akkujärjestelmän tuloksiin, jotta ymmärrettäisiin saman verkkoliitynnän hyödyntämisen edut. Lopuksi investointia analysoidaan skenaarioanalyysin avulla eri markkinahintatasoilla ja akkujärjestelmän rappeutumisnopeudella. Akkukapasiteetti mitoitetaan maksimaalisen nettonykyarvon mukaan. Tulokset osoittivat, että sekä tuulivoimapuiston verkkoliitynnän hyödyntämä akkujärjestelmä että omalla verkkoliitynnällä oleva akkujärjestelmä ovat potentiaalisia investointikohteita, mutta tuulivoimapuiston verkkoliityntää hyödyntävä akkujärjestelmä tarjoaa parempia tuottoja. Syynä tähän on, että uuden verkkoliitynnän kustannus itsenäiselle akkujärjestelmälle on suurempi kuin olemassa olevan verkkoliitännän hyödyntämisen kapasiteettirajoitusten aiheuttavat tulonmenetykset. Tuntireservimarkkinat tarjoavat parempia tuottoja kuin vuosireservimarkkinat. Vuosimarkkinat tuottivat 9 % sisäisen koron ja 350 kEUR nettonykyarvon, kun taas tuntimarkkinat tuottivat 22 % sisäisen koron ja yli 10 kertaa korkeamman nettonykyarvon vuosimarkkinoiden tuottoihin verrattuna. Akkukapasiteetin optimaalinen mitoitus todetaan olevan 30–40 % tuulipuiston tuotantokapasiteetista, joka tässä tapauksessa on 4–5 MW.

[pt] A perspectiva de queda nos preços dos sistemas fotovoltaicos e sistemas de armazenamento de energia elétrica em baterias trouxe a possibilidade de maior viabilidade econômica de projetos envolvendo recursos energéticos distribuídos. No Brasil, a Resolução Normativa 482/2012 regulamentou a micro e mini geração distribuída, estimulando, portanto, a integração desses recursos nas redes de distribuição. Com a promulgação da Lei brasileira 14.300/2022, os projetos de micro e mini geração distribuída foram impactados, uma vez que o sistema de compensação de energia elétrica passou a ser parcial, o que demanda agregar valor aos modelos de negócios baseados em geração distribuída. Este trabalho propõe um modelo de Programação Linear Inteira Mista estocástico com o objetivo de avaliar a viabilidade econômica de usinas virtuais compostas por diferentes configurações de recursos energéticos distribuídos, envolvendo baterias e painéis fotovoltaicos. Para atingir esse propósito, o modelo busca dimensionar o contrato de energia anual ótimo, fornecendo também a operação diária das baterias. Além de levar em consideração os aspectos da Lei 14.300/2022, o modelo incorpora a prática de arbitragem tarifária. Colaborando, assim, com estudos que analisam os impactos regulatórios sobre empreendimentos envolvendo baterias e painéis fotovoltaicos no contexto brasileiro. Com o intuito de abordar o tema de maneira ampla, o modelo proposto foi implementado para recursos energéticos distribuídos organizados como usina virtual, contendo: (i) um sistema fotovoltaico; (ii) um sistema de armazenamento de energia em baterias; (iii) um sistema híbrido (composto por um sistema fotovoltaico e um sistema de armazenamento de energia em baterias); e (iv) o estudo de caso da distribuidora de energia elétrica brasileira Energisa Tocantins. Em todas as aplicações, analisou-se a viabilidade econômica da usina virtual para as tarifas da Energisa Tocantins e outras 34 distribuidoras brasileiras, representando pelo menos uma distribuidora por estado brasileiro. Além disso, foram feitas comparações em relação à data de início de operação da usina virtual, evidenciando o impacto da Lei 14.300/2022 na viabilidade econômica das usinas virtuais analisadas, mostrando, assim, o impacto da referida lei nos projetos de geração distribuída no Brasil. No estudo de caso da distribuidora de energia elétrica brasileira Energisa Tocantins, foi realizada uma análise adicional contemplando aspectos da rede de distribuição da própria Energisa Tocantins, onde os recursos energéticos distribuídos estão alocados. Nessa análise adicional, foram avaliadas as perdas elétricas e seus custos, bem como o perfil de tensão para dois casos de operação das baterias e para o caso base, que seria o caso sem recursos energéticos distribuídos na rede de distribuição Energisa Tocantins. Os resultados evidenciaram que a implementação da Lei 14.300/2022 reduziu a atratividade de projetos envolvendo geração distribuída. No entanto, em sua maioria, considerando os parâmetros adotados deste estudo, esses projetos ainda se mostram viáveis economicamente. Levando em consideração as perdas elétricas e o perfil de tensão, a integração de recursos energéticos distribuídos na rede de distribuição pode trazer benefícios elétricos e redução de custos, dependendo da operação dos recursos energéticos distribuídos, demonstrando sua capacidade de fornecer serviços ancilares ao sistema elétrico. Além disso, os sistemas fotovoltaicos ainda apresentam maior competitividade se comparados com os sistemas híbridos ou os sistemas de armazenamento de energia em baterias, proporcionando retornos financeiros mais atrativos. Por fim, as diferentes amplitudes tarifárias influenciam diretamente na viabilidade de projetos de geração distribuída envolvendo sistemas de armazenamento de energia, já que quanto maior a amplitude tarifária, maior será a arbitragem tarifária que tais sistemas podem proporcionar. / [en] The prospect of declining prices in photovoltaic systems and battery energy storage systems has brought about the possibility of greater economic viability for projects involving distributed energy resources. In Brazil, Regulatory Resolution 482/2012 regulated micro and mini distributed generation, thereby encouraging the integration of these resources into distribution networks. With the enactment of Brazilian Law 14.300/2022, projects involving micro and mini distributed generation were impacted, as the net metering system for electricity became partial, demanding the addition of value to distributed generation-based business models. This work proposes a stochastic Mixed Integer Linear Programming model aimed at evaluating the economic feasibility of virtual power plants composed of different configurations of distributed energy resources, involving batteries and photovoltaic panels. To achieve this purpose, the model seeks to size the optimal annual energy contract, also providing the daily operation of the batteries. In addition to considering the aspects of Law 14.300/2022, the model incorporates tariff arbitrage practice, thus contributing to studies analyzing regulatory impacts on ventures involving batteries and photovoltaic panels in the Brazilian context. In order to comprehensively address the topic, the proposed model was implemented for distributed energy resources organized as virtual power plant, containing: (i) a photovoltaic system; (ii) a battery energy storage system; (iii) a hybrid system (composed of a photovoltaic system and a battery energy storage system); and (iv) the case study of the Brazilian electric utility Energisa Tocantins. In all applications, the economic viability of the virtual power plant was analyzed for the tariffs of Energisa Tocantins and 34 other Brazilian distributors, representing at least one distributor per Brazilian state. Additionally, comparisons were made regarding the start date of operation of the virtual power plant, highlighting the impact of Law 14.300/2022 on the economic viability of the analyzed virtual power plants, thus demonstrating the impact of said law on distributed generation projects in Brazil. In the case study of the Brazilian electric utility Energisa Tocantins, an additional analysis was conducted considering aspects of Energisa Tocantins distribution network, where distributed energy resources are allocated. In this additional analysis, electrical losses and their costs, as well as voltage profiles for two battery operation scenarios and the base case (i.e., the case without distributed energy resources in the Energisa Tocantins distribution network) were evaluated. The results showed that the implementation of Law 14.300/2022 reduced the attractiveness of projects involving distributed generation. However, for the most part, considering the parameters adopted in this study, these projects still demonstrate economic viability. Taking into account electrical losses and voltage profiles, the integration of distributed energy resources into the distribution network can bring electrical benefits and cost reductions, depending on the operation of the distributed energy resources, demonstrating their ability to provide ancillary services to the electrical system. Furthermore, photovoltaic systems still exhibit greater competitiveness when compared to hybrid systems or battery energy storage systems, providing more attractive financial returns. Finally, different tariff amplitudes directly influence the viability of distributed generation projects involving energy storage systems, as the greater the tariff amplitude, the greater the tariff arbitrage that such systems can provide.

The battery energy storage system (BESS) holds the promise of becoming an essential element in our energy landscape. With the increasing need for renewable energy and electrification, a BESS serves as backup power, grid frequency balancing, and playing a crucial role in achieving 100% renewable electricity production by 2040 in Sweden. This thesis aims to study intelligent energy trading algorithms for BESS with two markets. The algorithms would allow BESS to trade simultaneously with two markets, day-ahead (energy) market and FCR-N.The problem of trading is solved using reinforcement learning (RL) particularly, multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL), are proposed as potential solutions for learning energy trading strategies across multiple markets, addressing a gap in current research. In this study two main algorithms are used: Deep Q-networks (DQN), and Advantage Actor-Critic (A2C). These two algorithms are adapted to the MARL’s paradigms. This thesis answers three main questions. First, if any of the MARL variations of the two mentioned algorithms have any advantage over the others. The results suggest that the CTDE variation of A2C performs the best, followed by centralized variation of A2C. Second, the discrete action spaces and continuous action spaces are compared. The algorithms with continuous action spaces achieved higher revenues. The continuous action spaces let the agents decide the exact volumes of the energy to trade. This is while in the discrete action spaces the agents can only choose the volumes from a defined set of values. Third and last, the results from the experiments suggest that trading with two markets results in higher revenue than trading with one market. All the MARL algorithms have higher revenue compared to the simple hard-rule strategy designed for trading with two markets. This thesis shows that the RL and MARL algorithms can be used for creating profitable trading agents and for identifying successful trading strategies.

This thesis explores what Karlstad Airport needs to go 100% green. Photovoltaics are assumed to be installed at the facility and a Hydrogen Energy Storage System and Battery Energy Storage System will be evaluated to reduce peaks during charging of the planes. Different power peak limits are explored as well as different sized Energy Storage Systems and later evaluated economically. A method to find the cheapest possible system is created with some assumptions and is then used to evaluate throughout the whole dataset. In the end any of the different sized Energy Storage Systems reduces the profitability when considering each systems expected lifecycle.

An increased amount of intermittent electricity production, more electric vehicles (EV), and an overall electrification of society may all cause a higher variability between the balance of supply and demand on the electric grid. Battery storage has been identified as a solution to the emerging problem asit can be charged during hours of low power demand and then discharged to help meet the power demand during peak loads. This master thesis investigates how characteristics from yearly power demand data can be defined so that a battery energy storage system (BESS) can be dimensioned for it and which parameters are important when dimensioning a BESS. The investment cost of the dimensioned BESS is investigated and calculated, and there is as well a general discussion of potentials, drivers, and barriers for a grid owner to implement a BESS. The master thesis includes a literature study and a case study performed together with Tekniska verken and its subsidiary company Tekniska verken Nät where three cases of varying sizes were investigated:• An EV charging station, with a peak power demand of up to 1 MW.• A distribution station, with an original peak power demand of close to 3 MW.• Purchased power from the regional grid, with a peak power demand of almost 152 MW. By dimensioning a BESS from a year-long data curve of the hourly power demand, a power limit was set. The highest peak power value over the power limit, the longest peak duration, and the highest energy peak were then identified to establish the curve characteristics. A battery storage was investigated to see if it could be used to meet the demand occurring when implementing a power limit to the yearly power demand curve. Batteries store electrical energy in the form of electrochemical energy and then transforms the energy back into electrical energy when needed and does so with varying efficiency according to the type of chemistry that is used in the battery. The so-called lithium ion (li-ion) battery is mostly used today and utilizes lithium in the shape of ions along with a metallic cathode and a carbon anode. The cathode and anode can vary in a li-ion battery chemistry, which varies its characteristics and means that there are multiple types of li-ion battery chemistry types. The specific li-ion battery chemistry lithium iron phosphate (LFP), was established as the most applicable battery due to its high energy density, easy to attain materials, general safety, maturity, and amount of discharge cycles it can handle throughout its lifetime. A BESS could be modelled from the LFP limitations and data curve for each case. The results showed that a short-duration variability of a power demand was a success factor for the implementation of a BESS. It allows the BESS to recharge often and the minimum required energy capacity could be lower and more optimal. An investment cost insecurity was established from literature when comparing estimates, as it could vary depending on the published date, used battery chemistry, taxes, and subsidies in the origin country of the literature. Therefore an estimate given by the Swedish transmission system operator (TSO), Svenska Kraftnät of 5-6 MSEK/MWh from a report published in late 2022 was deemed most relevant. An investment cost for each scenario in every case could be calculated and additional economical benefits relevant in the cases such as comparing to the cost of conventional grid reinforcement or economical gains from a lowered grid subscription were investigated. However, an overall conclusion that the investment cost of a BESS was too expensive to be deemed feasible and that there were no overwhelming economical gains from reducing the peak loads was made. A final generalization and discussion of drivers and barriers concluded that the applicability of a BESS can be identified by the defining characteristics of a demand curve. Moreover, it was found that the BESS investment cost was too high when only applying it for grid reinforcement methods. Although, a BESS can have additional benefits to the grid stability. The grid owner cannot however, own a BESS and use it on the frequency service market which otherwise would potentially make it economically feasible to strengthen the grid. The ultimate goal of the project is to help create a broader understanding of battery storage as part of the electrical network, where and when it can be applicable, and how one could go about investigating its use. / En ökad mängd variabel elproduktion, fler elbilar och en elektrifiering av samhället i helhet. Detta kommer skapa en högre variabilitet och därmed större obalans mellan tillförsel och efterfrågan på elnätet. Batterilagring har identifierats som en potentiell lösning till det ökade problemet då det kan laddas vid ett lågt effektbehov och urladdas vid ett högt effektbehov. Genom detta examensarbete kommer det undersökas hur karaktäristik från årliga effektkurvor kan definieras. Det görs i syfte av att dimensionera ett batterilagringssystem utefter datan. Därefter undersöks även vilka parametrar som är viktiga vid dimensioneringen av ett batterilagringssystem. Utefter de dimensionerade batterilagringssystemen tas även en investeringskostnad fram. En diskussion framförs även utifrån den generella potentialen, drivkrafter och barriärer som finns vid implementering av ett batterilagringssystem från perspektivet av en nätägare. Examensarbete består av en litteraturstudie och en fallstudie som genomförs i samarbete med Tekniska verken i Linköping AB och Tekniska verken Nät, där tre fall av varierande storlek undersöks:• En elbilsladdningstation, med ett toppeffektbehov på upp till 1 MW.• En fördelningsstation, med ett ursprungligt toppeffektbehov på nästan 3 MW.• Köpt effekt från det regionala nätet, där toppeffektbehovet uppgår till nästan 152 MW. Vid dimensionering av ett batterilagringssytem från den årliga effektkurvan måste en effektbegränsning sättas. Därefter kan den överstigande effektopplasten, den längsta tiden effektbegränsningen överstigs och den högsta överstigande energin tas fram, för att etablera kurvans karaktäristik. En undersökning gjordes om ett batterilager kunde användas för att möta effektbehovet då en effektbegränsning införs till den årliga effektkurvan. Batterier lagrar elektrisk energi i formen av elektrokemisk energi för att sedan transformera tillbaka det till elektrisk energi då det finns ett behov. Effektiviteten av transformeringen varierar beroende på den kemiska blandningen som batteriet är uppbyggt av. Det så kallade litiumjonbatteriet är det mest använda idag och nyttjar litium i formen av joner tillsammans med en metallisk katod och en anod av kol. Katod och anod kan variera vilket medför en förändrad karaktäristik och betyder alltså att det finns olika sorters litiumjonbatterier. Den specifika litiumjärnfosfat (LFP) blandningen ansågs mest användbar i elnätsapplikationer. Detta på grund av sin höga energidensitet, lättillgängliga material, generella säkerhet, teknikens mognad och mängden urladdningscyklar den kan hantera. Ett batterilagringssytem kunde då modellerades utefter LFP-batterikemin i kombination med den årliga effektkurvan för varje fall. Resultatet därifrån visade att en korttidsvariabilietet av effektbehovet var en framgångsfaktor vid implementeringen av ett batterilagringssystem. Detta då det tillåter för ett batterilagringsystem att återladdas oftare och en lägre minimal energikapacitet kan dimensioneras vilket gör den mer optimal. Vid undersökning av investeringskostnaden upptäcktes en svaghet i litteraturen vid jämförandet av kostnadsuppskattningar. Uppskattningen kunde variera beroende på publiceringsdatum, val av batterikemi, landets skatter och bidrag. Därav valdes en kostnadsuppskattning från den svenska stamnätsägaren, Svenska Kraftnät på 5–6 MSEK/MWh utifrån en rapport publicerat sent i 2022 som mest relevant. Utifrån kostnadsuppskattningen kunde en beräkning av investeringskostnad och ytterligare ekonomiska gynnsamheter relevanta för varje fall undersökas (såsom en jämförelse mot konventionell nätförstärkning eller sänkt abonnemangskostnad). Den generella slutsatsen som drogs var däremot att investeringskostnaden för ett batterilagringssystem var för dyrt för att vara ekonomiskt genomförbart. Det var dessutom inga betydande ekonomiska gynnsamheter som kunde ändra på det då batterilagringssystemet endast användes till att sänka toppeffektlaster. En avslutande generalisering och diskussion av drivkrafter och barriärer framgav att applicerbarheten av ett batterilagringsystem kunde definieras utifrån den identifierade karaktäristiken av den årliga effektkurvan. Dessutom framkom det att investeringskostnaden i varje fall var för hög då batterilagringssystemet endast nyttjades som nätförstärkning. Hursomhelst kan ett batterilagringssystem bidra till ytterligare fördelar i elnätets stabilitet. Elnätsägaren kan inte äga ett batterilagringssystem och använda det på effektreservmarknaden som annars kunde bidra till batterilagringssystemets ekonomiska genomförbarhet. Det slutliga målet av arbetet har varit att ge en bredare förståelse för batterilagring som en del av elnätet. Detta genom att ta reda på när och var det är applicerbart och hur man kan utvärdera dess användning.

[pt] No Brasil, existem muitos projetos em sistemas fotovoltaicos, e a projeção para os próximos anos é de crescimento devido incentivos governamentais e os elevados preços das tarifas de energia. Associado a isso, o mercado de armazenamento de energia com baterias de íons de lítio tem se mostrado promissor devido a uma considerável queda nos preços dessas baterias nos últimos anos. Isso pode representar uma oportunidade para o mercado de sistemas fotovoltaicos quando os incentivos acabarem. Este trabalho propõe um modelo PLIM (Programação Linear Inteira Mista) estocástico para dimensionar um sistema fotovoltaico integrado com armazenamento de energia em baterias para grandes consumidores de energia, usando cenários de geração e consumo, podendo considerar diferentes modalidades tarifárias. As variáveis de decisão são o número de painéis, inversores, baterias, a operação diária do sistema de armazenamento e a demanda contratada do consumidor. A função objetivo busca minimizar o custo de investimento no sistema fotovoltaico, baterias e fatura de energia. A abordagem proposta será analisada sob diferentes premissas, uma com incentivos governamentais sobre a anergia injetada na rede e outra na qual a injeção de energia na rede não é permitida, a fim de avaliar a importância das baterias para manter a atratividade econômica do sistema fotovoltaico. Os resultados indicaram que o efeito sinérgico do sistema fotovoltaico com baterias potencializa a arbitragem, que está relacionada com a diferença entre as tarifas de energia de ponta e fora ponta. Isso ocorre principalmente com operação zero exportação porque somente assim o consumidor é livre para escolher a capacidade do seu sistema fotovoltaico, que hoje é limitado no Brasil quando o sistema é conectado na rede de distribuição. / [en] In Brazil, there are many projects in photovoltaic systems, and the projection for the coming years is positive due to the government incentives and the expensive energy tariffs. Associated with this, the Lithium-ion battery storage systems market has been promising due to a significant drop in battery prices in the last few years. This may represent an opportunity for the photovoltaic system market when the incentives run-out. This work proposes a stochastic mixed integer linear programming (MILP) model to design a photovoltaic system integrated with battery energy storage for big electricity consumers, using generation and consumption scenarios, being able to consider different Time-of-Use tariffs. The decision variables are the number of panels, inverters and batteries, its daily operation and the power demand contracted. The objective function aims to minimize the cost of investment, in the photovoltaic system, batteries and electricity bill. The proposed approach will be analyzed under different assumptions, one with the government incentive about injected surplus and another in which the injection into the network is not possible, in order to assess the importance of a storage system to keep the economic attraction of the photovoltaic system. Results indicated that the synergic effect of the photovoltaic system and battery potentialize the arbitrage, which is related to the difference between peak and off-peak energy tariff. This occurs, mainly with Zero Export operation because only this way the consumer is free to choose the capacity of the photovoltaic system, which is limited in Brazil when the system is allowed to inject energy into the network.

Energy from solar photovoltaic (PV) are generated as direct current (DC) and almost all of today’s electrical loads in residential buildings, household appliances and HVAC system (Heating Ventilation and Air-conditioning) are operated on DC. For a conventional alternating current (AC) distribution system this requires the need for multiple conversion steps before the final user-stage. By switching the distribution system to DC, conversion steps between AC to DC can be avoided and, in that way, losses are reduced. Including a battery storage–the system’s losses can be reduced further and the generated PV energy is even better utilised. This thesis investigates and quantifies the energy savings when using a direct current distribution topology in a residential building together with distributed energy generation from solar photovoltaic and a battery storage. Measured load and PV generation data for a single-family house situated in Borås, Sweden is used as a case study for the analysis. Detailed and dynamic models–based on laboratory measurements of the power electronic converters and the battery–are also used to more accurately reflect the system’s dynamic performance. In this study a dynamic representation of the battery’s losses is presented which is based on laboratory measurements of the resistance and current dependency for a single lithium-ion cell based on Lithium iron phosphate (LFP). A comparative study is made with two others, commonly used, loss representations and evaluated with regards to the complete system’s performance, using the PV and load data from the single-family house. Results show that a detailed battery representation is important for a correct loss prediction when modelling the interaction between loads, PV and the battery. Four DC system topologies are also modelled and compared to an equivalent AC topology using the experimental findings from the power electronic converters and the battery measurements. Results from the quasi-dynamic modelling show that the annual energy savings potential from the suggested DC topologies ranges between 1.9–5.6%. The DC topologies also increase the PV utilisation by up to 10 percentage points, by reducing the associated losses from the inverter and the battery conversion. Results also show that the grid-tied converter is the main loss contributor and when a constant grid-tied efficiency is used, the energy savings are overestimated.

With the increase of electric vehicles (EVs) on the roads the availability of charging infrastructure becomes more important. Today it is relatively straightforward to install fast chargers in areas with strong power grid connections, such as in urban areas. However, in areas with less available electrical power, the grid is considered to be a weak grid, typically in remote areas, which limits charging speeds. Local peak shaving can be implemented with battery energy storage systems (BESS) to support faster charging at these locations by increasing available power when needed. As the majority of the power is supplied by the BESS there are noticeable conversion losses when converting from the BESS DC voltage to AC in the grid and then back to DC through the fast charger. This thesis investigates DC/DC converters to charge EVs directly from a BESS DC bus by regulating the voltage to the level of the EV, while also supporting safe simultaneous charging capability. It was done through understanding relevant standards’ requirements, converter review, as well as design and simulation of the interesting topologies. The converters selected to simulate were the Buck-Boost and the Dual-Active Bridge (DAB). After analysing the efficiency result in combination with industry requirements, it was concluded that one DAB per output is the preferred option in most use cases. This would potentially also reduce the material usage and carbon footprint of this type of infrastructure compared to the current solution. Furthermore, some suggestions were made for improving the design of DAB converter before making a prototype for real testing. / Denna avhandling har undersökt hur en snabbladdares effektelektronik för en mobil batterienergilagringssystem kan designas för att ladda två elbilar samtidigt. För att göra detta har systemkrav från relevanta standarder sammanställts och olika snabbladdares kapacitet undersökts. Därefter har olika DC/DC-omvandlare identifierats i ändamål att välja ut de mest lämpade för att uppfylla funktionen. De utvalda omvandlarna designades iterativt och simulerades med i verktyget PLECS för att kunna jämföra hur vardera omvandlare presterade under olika scenarior och med olika transistorer. Resultat och slutsatser från detta arbete är att galvanisk isolering krävs mellan de två elbilarna samt att två Dual-Active Bridge (DAB) omvandlare är den mest lämpade utifrån effektivitet, kapacitet och materialanvänding. Det finns även flera områden att fortsätta arbetet på för att förbättra designen och testa med en prototyp.

[pt] O planejamento da expansão da transmissão (PET) visa identificar novos reforços para a rede, permitindo uma conexão tecnicamente adequada entre demanda e geração de energia elétrica, ambas previstas para um determinado horizonte de planejamento. Um bom plano de expansão deve garantir o equilíbrio entre os custos de investimento e operação, mantendo um nível satisfatório de segurança no fornecimento de energia elétrica. Entretanto, a identificação de bons planos de expansão para o PET tem se tornado uma tarefa cada vez mais difícil. Isso se deve, principalmente, às características e dimensões dos sistemas atuais, a não linearidade e natureza combinatória do problema de otimização e às incertezas presentes nos dados. Os erros de previsão, a indisponibilidade de equipamentos e a disponibilidade dos recursos naturais são parâmetros que variam de forma aleatória e inserem um alto grau de incerteza nos sistemas elétricos, o qual aumenta proporcionalmente com o horizonte de planejamento. Uma das incertezas mais relevantes a ser gerenciada nas próximas décadas será a capacidade de geração oriunda de fontes renováveis, em particular as eólicas, devido à sua grande variabilidade. A utilização de dispositivos de armazenamento permitirá melhor aproveitamento dessas fontes e, portanto, torna-se necessário o desenvolvimento de ferramentas computacionais capazes de considerar tais dispositivos no problema PET. Esta dissertação apresenta uma nova metodologia de apoio ao problema PET inserindo armazenadores de energia elétrica para aumentar o aproveitamento de fontes renováveis no sistema. Isso, respeitando as restrições de segurança da rede, acompanhando à curva de demanda e levando em consideração as variáveis operativas destes dispositivos. A possibilidade de incluir sistemas de armazenamento de energia elétrica é avaliada através de uma análise custo-benefício. A metodologia proposta é aplicada a um sistema teste, submetido a diversas condições operativas, e os resultados obtidos são amplamente discutidos. / [en] The transmission expansion planning (TEP) aims at identifying new reinforcements for the network, allowing a technically adequate connection between demand and generation of electric energy, both foreseen for a given planning horizon. A good expansion plan must ensure a balance between investment and operating costs, while maintaining a satisfactory level of security of the electric energy supply. However, identifying good expansion plans for TEP has become an increasingly difficult task. This is mainly due to the characteristics and dimensions of the current systems, the nonlinearity and combinatorial nature of the optimization problem, and the uncertainties present in the data. Forecasting errors, equipment unavailability, and the availability of natural resources are parameters that vary in a random way and insert a high degree of uncertainty in the electrical system, which proportionally increases with the planning horizon. One of the most relevant uncertainties to be managed in the upcoming decades will be the generation capacity from renewable sources, particularly wind power, due to its great variability. Storage devices will allow better use of these sources and, therefore, it becomes necessary to develop computational tools capable of considering such devices in the TEP problem. This dissertation presents a new methodology to support the TEP problem by inserting electric energy storage to increase the use of renewable energy in the system, while respecting the security restrictions of the network, following the demand curve and taking into account the operational variables of these devices. The possibility of including electric energy storage systems is evaluated through a costbenefit analysis. The proposed methodology is applied to a test system, subject to various operating conditions, and the obtained results are widely discussed.