Title: The implementation of valuation of tangible and financial assets to fair value – and its effects on the creditor protection Course: Bachelor theses in business accounting, 10 Swedish credits Author: Sam Espeland Advisor: Ogi Chun Key words: IAS 16, 39, 40, fair value, creditor protection, equity Purpose: The purpose with the essay is to examine how the implementation of the IAS standards that regard valuation to fair value, effects the equity and how the effects on equity affects the creditor protection. Methodology: The essay is using both a quantitative and a qualitative approach in which the quantitative part constitutes of data collection from annual reports and the qualitative part constitutes of interviews. Theoretical perspective: The theory gives a thorough understanding in how the IAS standards are designed, furthermore the procedure at liquidation and lack of capital is being treated, moreover some relevant terms and concepts are being treated. Empirical foundation: This chapter is divided into two parts, in one part the results from the quantitative approach is being presented in diagram form, and in the other part the interviews are being presented. Conclusions: The implementation will give a higher equity for most real estate companies, but likely also for example the mining industry. The creditor protection will likely be worsened among the industries that experience an increase in equity since their activities may proceed for a longer time before they have to be liquidated. / Syfte: Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka hur införandet av IAS standarder som rör värdering till verkligt värde, påverkar eget kapital och hur detta i sin tur påverkar borgenärsskyddet. Metod: Uppsatsen använder sig av både ett kvantitativt och ett kvalitativt upplägg där den kvantitativa delen utgörs av datainsamling från årsredovisningar och den kvalitativa delen utgörs av intervjuer. Teoretiskt perspektiv: Teorin ger en ingående kunskap i hur IAS standarderna är utformade, dessutom behandlas förfarandet vid likvidation och kapitalbrist, vidare behandlas en del relevanta termer och begrepp. Empiri: Empirin är uppdelad i två delar, i den ena delen redovisas resultatet av den kvantitativa ansatsen i diagramform, och i den andra delen redovisas utförda intervjuer. Slutsatser: Implementeringen av relevanta IAS standarder ger ett ökat eget kapital för fastighetsbranschen men sannolikt även för t ex. gruvbolag. Borgenärsskyddet kommer sannolikt försämras bland de branscher där eget kapital ökar, eftersom deras verksamhet kan fortgå under en längre tid innan de måste träda i likvidation.

<p>The harmonization within EC Company Law has been relativley successful. Despite its relative success; important differences still remains in European company law.</p><p>The freedom of establishment itself, and the ECJ’s interpretation of the freedom provides European companies with a substantial cross-border mobility. As a consequence of this mobility, together with the differences in national legislation; mandatory rules in company law can be easily evaded. A typical example of this is that a Swedish enterprise, by running their business through a British private limited company, can escape the Swedish legislation on capital contributions when forming a company with limited liability for its members. These rules are thereby undermined.</p><p>The fact that these, otherwise mandatory, rules can be evaded should result in a questioning of their existence. The main purpose of rules on minimal capital contributions is to safeguard the interests of the creditors of the company. The analysis in this thesis shows that the Swedish legal capital regime is very unlikley to fulfill its purpose. The alternative, English company law, can in various aspects be seen as more efficient.</p> / <p>Den gemenskapsrättsliga harmoniseringsprocessen har på bolagsrättens område varit relativt framgångsrik. Trots detta går det i dagsläget inte att tala om någon konform europeisk bolagsrätt. Betydande skillnader kvarstår mellan de nationella bolagsrättsliga regelverken.</p><p>Den EG-rättsliga etableringsfriheten, och EG-domstolens tolkning av densamma, innebär att de europeiska företagen ges ett relativt stort mått av gränsöverskridande rörelsefrihet. En följd av denna mobilitet tillsammans med skillnaderna i de nationella regelverken är att tvingande nationell bolagsrättslig lagstiftning relativt</p><p>enkelt kan kringgås. Ett typexempel på detta är att svenska företagare, genom att bedriva sin verksamhet i ett engelskt aktiebolag, kan undgå det svenska kravet på tillskjutande av ett minsta aktiekapital vid bildandet av ett privat aktiebolag. Det svenska kapitalkravet kan därmed sägas vara underminerat.</p><p>Blott det faktum att det svenska kapitalkravet underminerats innebär att dess existens bör ifrågasättas. Syftet med kapitalkravet är främst att skydda borgenärernas intressen i bolagen. Mot bakgrund av vad som framkommer i denna uppsats kan det svenska kapitalkravets effektivitet betvivlas. Alternativet, den engelska bolagsrätten, kan ur en rad aspekter sägas vara mer ändamålsenlig.</p>

in English In this thesis, I analyse Council regulation (EC) No 1346/2000 of 29 May 2000 on insolvency proceedings and its practical effects in EU member states' bankruptcy proceedings. The regulation creates a European insolvency law which is aimed at proper functioning of the internal market. The market requires efficient and effective cross-border insolvency proceedings in order to protect creditors. I review interpretations of the principle of controlled universality, Lex fori concursus, recognition of insolvency proceedings, and cooperation of liquidators whose function is to administer or liquidate assets located in various member states. I also examine the process of launching primary and secondary proceedings in relation to the debtor's centre of main interest and to his place of operations where the debtor carries out a non-transitory economic activity with human means and goods. I demonstrate the current legal reasoning of the Court of Justice of the European Union in e.g. the Judgment of the Court (Grand Chamber) of 2 May 2006 in Case C-341/04, Eurofood IFSC Ltd. which interprets Articles 1, 2, 3 and 16 of the regulation, and in the Judgment of the Court (First Chamber) of 21 January 2010 in Case C-444/07, MG Probud Gdynia sp. z o.o., which interprets Articles 3, 4, 16, 17 and 25 of the...

Submitted by caio rego (caiovr@gmail.com) on 2017-02-06T22:50:34Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DissertaçãoCaioRego.pdf: 663195 bytes, checksum: bcc4ad3cf583380984dbf0d0b5671666 (MD5) / Rejected by Pamela Beltran Tonsa (pamela.tonsa@fgv.br), reason: Bom dia Caio, Para que possamos aprovar seu trabalho é necessário alguns ajustes conforme norma ABNT/APA. * Seu titulo esta diferente da ATA, caso realmente exista essa alteração é preciso o professor orientador vir até a secretaria para fazer a alteração no verso da ATA com o titulo atual. Caso contrário não poderei aprovar. (INVESTOR PROTECTION AND CONSTRAINTS RELIEF) * Verificar a segunda folha, pois seu nome esta no rodapé da pagina. * Na pagina onde tem a ficha catalográfica, não tem escrita abaixo da caixa. * Conforme a norma é necessário ter AGRADECIMENTO, ABSTRACT E RESUMO - palavras em letra MAIÚSCULA ( no seu caso nesta ordem por ser um trabalho em inglês ) Após os ajustes você deve submete-lo novamente para analise e aprovação. Obs.: Mandarei um modelo em seu e-mail para visualização. Qualquer duvida estamos a disposição, Pâmela Tonsa 3799-7852 on 2017-02-07T10:24:20Z (GMT) / Submitted by caio rego (caiovr@gmail.com) on 2017-02-07T14:33:52Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DissertaçãoCaioVieira.pdf: 664958 bytes, checksum: 191819e57bac8bd461bc698115d3f3ef (MD5) / Rejected by Pamela Beltran Tonsa (pamela.tonsa@fgv.br), reason: Boa tarde Caio, Para que possamos aprovar seu trabalho são necessários alguns ajustes conforme norma ABNT/APA. * Seu título na hora de postar deve ser como esta na ATA, não só na mudança do titulo no trabalho. (INVESTOR PROTECTION AND CONSTRAINTS RELIEF) * Verificar a primeira e a segunda folha, pois seu nome está no rodapé da página. ( isso acontece quando muda para pdf - ficar atento) * Conforme a norma é necessário ter AGRADECIMENTO, ABSTRACT E RESUMO - Letra Maiúscula Após os ajustes você deve submete-lo novamente para análise e aprovação. Qualquer dúvida estamos à disposição, Pâmela Tonsa 3799-7852 on 2017-02-07T16:04:37Z (GMT) / Submitted by caio rego (caiovr@gmail.com) on 2017-02-07T17:18:03Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DissertaçãoCaioVieira.pdf: 666485 bytes, checksum: 3cb122fce819ec6da1fde898c3518471 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Pamela Beltran Tonsa (pamela.tonsa@fgv.br) on 2017-02-07T17:29:01Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissertaçãoCaioVieira.pdf: 666485 bytes, checksum: 3cb122fce819ec6da1fde898c3518471 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-02-07T19:00:44Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissertaçãoCaioVieira.pdf: 666485 bytes, checksum: 3cb122fce819ec6da1fde898c3518471 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-12-22 / Under financial constraints, firms are kept from following first-best policies. It is in the best interests of the regulators to diminish this inefficiencies as firms play such a important roles in the economy as generating employment and contributing to the GDP. One of the channels through which regulation may interfere with firms funding availability is by protecting investors. This research assesses the relationship between investor protection and firms’ financial constraints. I split some of the most common measures of investor protection among three classes: creditor protection, minority protection and external investor protection. This division is relevant to screen the importance of a given class to alleviate the constraints: constrained firms are likely to share some characteristics that make them more akin to rely on given funding source, for example: firms facing asymmetric information problems are more suitable to debt financing. The cash-flow sensitivity of cash is used as a proxy for financial constraints. I construct cash saving models based on a sample of 27471 firms in 393 industries (3 digit-SIC), from 2001 to 2015. The models are fitted in two groups: for firms more likely to be constrained, and for firms less likely. To classify the firms between this two groups I rely on the Size and Age index, and on switching regressions with unknown separation points. The results points that creditor protection is related to lower cash-flow sensitivities of cash for the constrained firms, while external investor protection are related to more prevalent constraints. Minority protection present a negative interaction with the cash-sensitivity of cash in the panel model (indicating constraints relief) but positive coefficient relative to the switching regression. For the unconstrained batch, however, the results are mixed for the creditor protection measure, while external investor protection always diminish the firms’ propensity to save cash. / Sob restrição financeira, as firmas se distanciam de suas políticas ótimas. É do interesse dos reguladores diminuir as essas ineficiências pois as empresas desempenham funções importantes como contribuir para o PIB e gerar empregos. Uma das formas com que a regulação pode contribuir com a disponibilidade de financiamento para as companhias é estipulando leis que protegem seus investidores. Essa pesquisa investiga a relação entre proteção ao investidor e a restrição financeiro no meio corporativo. Nela, eu divido as leis que protegem os investidores em três tipos: proteção ao credor, ao acionista e ao investidor externo. A importância dessa divisão se dá por permitir identificar o efeito relativo de uma certa categoria de proteção em aliviar restrições financeiras: firmas restritas possuem características que podem torná-las mais suscetíveis a se financiar por certa forma de financiamento, por exemplo: firmas enfrentando assimetria de informação têm no endividamento sua forma de financiamento mais adequada. Para identificar restrição financeira eu me apoio na sensibilidade do caixa ao fluxo de caixa. Eu construo modelos de formação de caixa baseados em uma amostra de 27471 firmas em 393 industrias (SIC de 3 dígitos). A amostra compreende os anos entre 2000 e 2016. Os modelos são ajustados para 2 grupos: o das firmas mais prováveis de enfrentarem restrição financeira e o das menos prováveis. Para realizar essa classificação eu utilizo o índice de Tamanho e Idade, e em uma switching regression com pontos de separação desconhecidos. Os resultados apontam que proteção ao credor está relacionada a menores sensibilidades do caixa ao fluxo de caixa para ao grupo restrito, enquanto proteção ao investidor externo está relacionada ao restrições mais prevalentes. Proteção ao acionista apresenta uma interação negativa com a sensibilidade da caixa ao fluxo de caixa no modelo em painel, mas o sinal oposto no modelo de switching regression. No conjunto de firmas irrestritas por outro lado, os resultados são inconclusivos para a variável de proteção ao credor, enquanto proteção ao investidor externo sempre aparece relacionado a uma diminuição da restrição financeira.

It is in the area of the regulation of a company's share capital and distributions to shareholders that the inherent conflict between creditors and shareholders, and the fragile balance among shareholders internally, intersect. The share capital of a company underlies its corporate structure and represents not only its initial own funds from which creditors can be paid, but also the relative equity interests of the shareholders. The balance between shareholders can be disturbed by capital reorganisations through increase, reduction or variation of share capital or through disproportionate contributions by, or distributions to, shareholders. Share repurchases are particularly risky in this regard. Creditor interests are affected when their prior right to payment is endangered by distributions to shareholders. This study analyses the South African Law relating to share capital and distributions against the background of a comparative study of the laws of England, New Zealand, Delaware and California, as well as the provisions of the American Model Business Corporations Act. Two main approaches to creditor protection are evident. The capital maintenance doctrine, which is followed in England and Delaware, protects creditors by emphasising the notional share capital of the company as a limit on distributions. In contrast, the solvency and liquidity approach focuses on the net assets of the company and on its ability to pay its debts. New Zealand, California and the Model Business Corporations Act represent this approach. Regulatory responses to shareholder protection range from insistence on compliance with procedural requirements to minimal statutory intervention in the internal affairs of companies, instead relying on general principles of fairness and good faith. There is little correlation between a particular system's approach to creditor protection on the one hand, and to shareholder protection on the other. England, New Zealand and South Africa prescribe specific formalities, while the American approach is more relaxed. South Africa is a hybrid system. Its transition from capital maintenance to solvency and liquidity has been incomplete and its protection of equity interests is relatively unsophisticated. A number of recommendations are made for an effective and coherent approach that will safeguard the interests of creditors and shareholders alike. / School: Law / LL.D.

La tesi affronta il tema del capitale sociale e della sua funzione all’interno del sistema delle società di capitali partendo dalle innovazioni legislative che hanno interessato la disciplina della s.r.l. in Europa. Nel primo capitolo vengono dipanate alcune questioni teoriche e applicative che hanno afflitto la prima esegesi delle nuove forme di patrimonializzazione delle s.r.l. Nel secondo capitolo sono discusse le tesi tradizionali sul capitale sociale e sono esposte le ragioni per cui esse non paiono idonee a risolvere le questioni organizzative e capitalistiche poste dall’istituto. Nel terzo capitolo è esposta la tesi centrale: il capitale sociale esprime un concetto normativo che svolge una funzione di governo societario, volto a risolvere la questione organizzativo-corporativa (rapporti interorganici in materia di scelte finanziarie) e riafferma l’impostazione proprietaria degli ordinamenti continentali. Si illustra una lettura unitaria interna alla classe delle società di capitali e il collegamento con la limitazione di responsabilità. Sono esaminati gli istituti del diritto societario finalizzati ad assicurare garanzia ed efficienza, profili non sempre convergenti. Si sostiene la necessità di una rule, ex ante, ad effetto reale, rispetto ai rimedi basati sugli standard e di carattere obbligatorio, individuando un possibile strumento di composizione degli interessi in gioco nelle nuove tutele. / The dissertation deals with legal capital and its function within the system of the Italian civil code rules for corporations. These rules have been recently amended both in Italy and in other European Countries, in particular with respect to the non-stock company forms (limited liability company, Italian s.r.l.). The first Chapter addresses some theoretical and practical issues raised by the early scholarly works that have analyzed the new financing schemes for the Italian s.r.l. The second Chapter discusses the traditional approaches to legal capital and provides evidence that such approaches prove inadequate to resolve the corporate and capitalistic questions that legal capital poses. The third Chapter draws the key argument of the dissertation: legal capital is a rule that fulfills corporate governance goals. It allocates powers and responsibilities regarding the financial structure of the firm and reaffirms the proprietary, shareholder oriented, European approach. This is a typical feature of all corporations, public stock corporations and private close corporations, and stems from limited liability. Further, the dissertation compares the creditor protection rules against the value maximization principle. A rule-based, ex ante approach appears more desirable and a potentially effective and flexible legal strategy can be found in the new legal reserve.

It is in the area of the regulation of a company's share capital and distributions to shareholders that the inherent conflict between creditors and shareholders, and the fragile balance among shareholders internally, intersect. The share capital of a company underlies its corporate structure and represents not only its initial own funds from which creditors can be paid, but also the relative equity interests of the shareholders. The balance between shareholders can be disturbed by capital reorganisations through increase, reduction or variation of share capital or through disproportionate contributions by, or distributions to, shareholders. Share repurchases are particularly risky in this regard. Creditor interests are affected when their prior right to payment is endangered by distributions to shareholders. This study analyses the South African Law relating to share capital and distributions against the background of a comparative study of the laws of England, New Zealand, Delaware and California, as well as the provisions of the American Model Business Corporations Act. Two main approaches to creditor protection are evident. The capital maintenance doctrine, which is followed in England and Delaware, protects creditors by emphasising the notional share capital of the company as a limit on distributions. In contrast, the solvency and liquidity approach focuses on the net assets of the company and on its ability to pay its debts. New Zealand, California and the Model Business Corporations Act represent this approach. Regulatory responses to shareholder protection range from insistence on compliance with procedural requirements to minimal statutory intervention in the internal affairs of companies, instead relying on general principles of fairness and good faith. There is little correlation between a particular system's approach to creditor protection on the one hand, and to shareholder protection on the other. England, New Zealand and South Africa prescribe specific formalities, while the American approach is more relaxed. South Africa is a hybrid system. Its transition from capital maintenance to solvency and liquidity has been incomplete and its protection of equity interests is relatively unsophisticated. A number of recommendations are made for an effective and coherent approach that will safeguard the interests of creditors and shareholders alike. / School: Law / LL.D.

Access to finance is often a vital tool for a company to make investments which in turn leads to increased generation of income. In 2022, the amount of lending to non-financial companies increased by around 13 %. Banks' traditional lending channels have recently been challenged by DeFi. Within DeFi, no central intermediary is used, the security provided is cryptocurrencies and the transaction history is public. The most common cryptocurrency used in DeFi is bitcoin. At the time of writing, bitcoin has a market capitalization of approximately $521 million. The use of DeFi has grown rapidly in 2022 as cryptocurrencies worth just under $110 billion were pledged in DeFi as collateral for credit. The EBA has previously warned about the risks of cryptocurrencies. Despite warnings, neither case law nor any clear legislation regarding cryptocurrencies and creditors protection has thus been created. Though, there is a proposal from EU that will create a uniform regulation for cryptocurrencies that are not currently covered by the EU's existing regulatory framework for financial services, the so-called MiCA regulation. In Swedish legislation, there is an ongoing investigation on how to handle cryptocurrencies. However, neither the proposals at EU-level nor national level deal with substantive legal aspects such as creditors protection. The purpose of the thesis is to present a proposal for what bitcoin as property is classified as according to Swedish law and to identify the most appropriate legal aspect when bitcoins are used within DeFi. Based on the purpose, the following questions arise (i) What type of property should the cryptocurrency bitcoin be legally classified as? (ii) How can creditor protection be achieved when a transaction with bitcoin is made? (iii) How can creditor protection be achieved when bitcoin is used as collateral? In this thesis, the legal dogmatic method and law analogies will be used to answer the questions. The conclusions are that bitcoin should first be seen as a financial instrument according to MiFID II and creditor protection in the case of acquired ownership of bitcoins can basically never be achieved. Creditor protection in case of retained ownership can be achieved with analogous application of RVL and using registration as an element of property rights. When bitcoin is used as collateral, creditor protection can be achieved through the property right element of registration or tradition. In the case of three-party escrow, notification of transfer of claim must be made to the person who holds the pledged property in accordance with the 1936 Pawn Law.