Le champ d’application de la Convention de Vienne de 1980 sur la vente internationale de marchandises constitue une question très délicate. En effet, le caractère abstrait et supplétif de ladite Convention a donné naissance à une jurisprudence fort divergente et à une doctrine rarement en accord. Les difficultés d’application de la Convention démontrent clairement les limites de cette dernière à s’adapter aux nouveaux contrats de vente internationale. Ces difficultés sont-elles dues à une mauvaise interprétation des termes de la convention ? Serait-il juste de compléter les lacunes de la Convention de Vienne par d’autres Conventions telles que les règles d’UNIDROIT ou les principes de droit européen des contrats ? Faut-il aller «au-delà» de la Convention de Vienne ? Toutes ces questions doivent être gardées en tête pour bien analyser le champ d’application de ladite Convention. / The scope of application of the 1980 Vienna Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods is a very delicate issue. Indeed, its abstract and supplementary nature has given rise to markedly divergent judgements and rarely agreeing doctrine. The difficulties arising from the application of the CISG clearly exemplfy its limited ability to adap to novel international sale of goods contracts. Are these difficulties attributable to faulty interpretations of the provisions of the CISG? Would it be opportune to compensate for the CISG's shortcomings by resorting to other instruments, such as the UNIDROIT rules or the principles of European contract law? Is it necessary to look beyond the Vienna Convention? All these questions must be considered in order to properly analyse the scope of application of the CISG.

The purpose of this thesis was to explore how preschool-aged girls self-regulate when they are challenged by a naturally occurring task or activity within the preschool environment. My work as a graduate research assistant to Dr. Wanda Boyer enabled me access to a large grounded theory study entitled, A Foundational Measure of Early Childhood Self-Regulation, from which participants were chosen. Since I endeavoured to capture a holistic picture of preschool-aged girls’ self-regulation, as they encounter a naturally occurring difficult activity, a multiple case research design, within the qualitative paradigm, was used. In keeping with the qualitative case study tradition, this study utilized multiple data sources such as demographic information, transcriptions of interviews and videotaped observations from the larger study. The results of pattern matching, within-case and cross-case analyses are presented within four central themes: (a) initiating, modulating, and ceasing a difficult task, (b) strategies used across six dimensions of regulation, (c) interactions occurring during the regulation of a difficult task and, (d) the common use of physical strategies. This descriptive thesis concludes with key findings, proposed implications, and suggestions for future research.

本研究針對國內1996至2003年68筆受證期局強制重編財報事件為研究對象，採個案與實證兼具之研究方法，探討財報強制重編之成因、外顯徵兆與經濟後果。 就財報強制重編之成因而言，本研究發現盈餘管理誘因亦適用於財報強制重編之情形；公司治理機制中控制權與所有權偏離程度的縮小、外部審計品質的提升與關係人交易之透明與簡單化，皆可以降低財報強制重編之機率。就財報強制重編之外顯徵兆，則發現會計師出具無保留以外之意見與損益品質的下降，為公司錯誤報導財務報表之重要指標。就財報強制重編之經濟後果，實證顯示財報強制重編與財務困難間具有顯著的關聯性。此外，本研究並發現財報重編影響的報表數愈多、金額幅度愈大、涉及業外非核心盈餘與投資損益之重編時，公司發生財務困難的可能性將顯著增加。 / This research employs both case study and empirical approaches to investigate the causes, demeanors and economic consequences of a sample of firms that were enforced by the Securities and future Bureau to restate their financial statements over the period of year 1996 to year 2003. The analysis of the causes of mandatory restatements shows that the motivations of earnings management also apply to the context of financial restatements. The firms with smaller deviation of control rights from the cash flow rights, higher audit quality and more transparency in related-party transactions help alleviate the probability of restatements. The results also indicate that unclean audit opinions and decrease in quality of earnings are important demeanors of misstatement of financial statements. In addition, firms are enforced to restate their financial statements are found to be significantly related to the occurrence of financial difficulties in the future. The findings show that the severer the materiality of the restatement in terms of the length of period, dollars, and the nature of the restatements, the higher the possibility of firms will experience financial difficulties.

The ability to grip on petal surfaces is of crucial importance for the interactions between bees and flowers. In this thesis, I explore the biomechanics of attachment and morphological diversity of bee attachment devices, linking this to the behavioural ecology of bee interactions with flowers. Attachment devices come in two main kinds: claws or spines, and adhesive pads. Claw functioning is poorly described, particularly in terms of how their performance depends on body size, claw geometry, and surface roughness. Claw attachment performance was investigated using several insect species, each covering a large range of body masses. Weight-specific attachment forces decreased with body size, with claw sharpness seemingly playing a role. In bees there is considerable interspecific variation in tarsal claw morphology. This variation, and arolia presence/absence, was categorised for the large bee family Apidae. Cleft/bifid claws were shown to be present in the majority of the Apidae, often with differences between sexes and clades. Using Bombus terrestris, there was no evidence that cleft claws are important for pollen collection; however, I found that the inner tooth of cleft claws can act as a backup if the main tooth breaks. Although this may be one function of cleft claws, there are clearly other unresolved functions well worth further exploration. Investigations were undertaken to explore how petal surface roughness affects bee foraging behaviour. Lab-based foraging trials on B. terrestris visiting artificial flowers varying in slope, surface texture and sugar reward revealed a trade-off between the biomechanical difficulty of visiting and handling the ‘flowers’ and the quality of the reward offered. Flowers that were difficult to grip were often avoided even if they offered a higher reward. To further investigate reward preferences of bees, the effect of sucrose concentration on honey stomach offloading times was also explored. Although the majority of petals do have a rough surface, some have slippery petals. In the field, bumblebees avoided landing on slippery hollyhock petals in favour of the easy-to-grip staminal column. In contrast, honey bees, which are smaller and have larger adhesive pads, landed on both the staminal column and the petals. Slippery petals may be an adaptation to increase contact with plant reproductive structures. Grip is also important to allow the honey bee parasite Varroa destructor to climb on to their host. Attachment forces experiments found that V. destructor could support > 300 times their body mass on honey bees, giving them strong attachment even when bees attempt to remove them through grooming. A grooming-based device for treating V. destructor was tested in an apiary trial. The device was ineffective, providing valuable information for beekeepers considering using this product. In summary, this thesis improves our understanding of the biomechanics of attachment as well as identifying several important aspects of grip in bee-plant interactions.

It is well established that repeated testing is more beneficial for durable learning than repeated studying of the same material, a phenomenon known as the testing effect. This study sought to investigate the role of working memory capacity (WMC) in relation to the learning process and the difficulty of the material to be learned when using a test-enhanced learning method. As between subject manipulation, participants (n = 99, M = 25.62 years of age) were divided into two groups, one using repeated studying and one using alternated testing and studying. A material of two difficulty levels, as well as immediate and delayed retention tests, was used in each condition as within subject manipulation. Further, an n-back task was used to measure WMC. Results from mixed model ANOVAs showed no significant impact of WMC on either the learning process or retention in relation to the difficulty of the material. The testing condition performed significantly higher than the studying condition on the retention tests. The testing effect is further cemented as a promising method for practical application in the educational sector regardless of both WMC and difficulty level. / Det är väl etablerat att upprepad testning är mer fördelaktigt för hållbar inlärning än upprepad instudering av samma material, ett fenomen känt som testeffekten. Denna studie ämnade undersöka arbetsminnets roll i relation till inlärningsprocessen och svårighetsgrad av material med testbaserat lärande som metod. Som mellangruppsmanipulation delades deltagare (n = 99, M = 25.62 år gamla) in i två grupper, en som upprepade gånger studerade materialet och en som alternerade studerande med tester. Ett material med två svårighetsgrader och ett direkt samt fördröjda retentionstester användes som inomgruppsmanipulation. Vidare användes ett n-backtest som mått på arbetsminneskapacitet. Resultat visade ingen signifikant inverkan av arbetsminne på varken inlärningsprocessen eller retention i relation till svårighetsgrad av material. Testbetingelsen presterade signifikant högre på retentionstest än studiebetingelsen. Testeffekten fastställs ytterligare som lovande metodik för praktisk applikation i utbildningssektorn oberoende av både arbetsminneskapacitet och svårighetsgrad.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:46:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 6007.pdf: 5863995 bytes, checksum: b6bdf5fea59f7a522260f11079b13f4a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-02-25 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / The Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD) can cause difficulties on scholar performance and behavior problems in this context, what may interfere, thus, on the full participation of the student. The teachers are on a ideal position for the recognizing of de disorder signs and can change the life of a lot of children, because the SPD are unkown in Brazil and doesn t find the diagnosis, those children must be helping the improve of the school failure statistics. On the international tendencies for the concept of inclusive education, the prepared teacher for the inclusion is that one capacitated for different pedagogic strategies, for different students. The further teacher development has been considered one of the better ways for prepare the teacher for the inclusion. The aim of this research was to evaluate the results (short and long-term) of a further teacher development intervention about the SPD and its consequences for the scholar performance. The method was exploratory-descriptive s qualitative and quantitative. The research received authorization of the Municipal Education Secretary, was approved by CEP and authorized by the school after the teacher approval. The data collection and intervention was developed in a classroom of the participant school, located on a peripheral region of a midsize city of São Paulo s State central region. The research steps where developed during six HTPC s moments (a time for pedagogic collective work) and the participants where 16 teachers and administrators responsible for the first to the fifth grade from a government college of elementary education. A pilot study previously developed with two volunteers embased the elaboration and adequation of the data collection instruments and the illustrative cases, which were used as a base for complete the instruments. For the initial collect, participants filled the self-guided interview and the pre-test sheet. After the intervention, they filled the course evaluation and the pos-test. Eight months later, it was developed the follow-up data collecttion individual for those whom cited current students with similar profiles to the illustrative cases and a general instrument for all the participants. The qualitative data analysis where realized by theoretical axis, the quantitative data where analised using the t-student test, adopting p<0,05. The results shown the effectiveness of intervention to form opinion about new and unknown topics, once it was a movement from the non-responded affirmatives to the ones correctly responded on the pos-test. However, the intervention wasn t able to modifies pre-established incorrect concepts from the initial data collection. The follow-up showed that, for the topic discussed on this constructed intervention, this kind of further development wasn t able to transform participants in prevention e action agents. That means that the further development of this research got positive short-term results, but not long-term outcome in respect to the changing attitude. / O Transtorno do Processamento Sensorial (TPS) pode ocasionar dificuldades no desempenho escolar e problemas de comportamento nesse contexto, interferindo, portanto, na participação plena do aluno. Os professores estão numa posição ideal para o reconhecimento dos sinais do transtorno e podem mudar a vida de muitas crianças, pois, por serem pouco conhecidos no Brasil, tais casos não encontram um diagnóstico e podem estar engrossando as estatísticas do fracasso escolar. Na tendência internacional de concepção de educação inclusiva, o professor preparado para a inclusão é aquele capacitado para diferentes estratégias pedagógicas, para diferentes alunos. A formação continuada tem sido vista como uma das melhores formas para o preparo do professor para a inclusão. O objetivo da pesquisa foi avaliar os resultados a curto e longo prazo de uma intervenção, no formato de formação continuada de professores, sobre o TPS e as consequências deste para o desempenho escolar. O método foi qualitativo e quantitativo, do tipo exploratório-descritivo. A pesquisa recebeu autorização da Secretaria Municipal de Educação, foi aprovada pelo CEP e autorizada pela diretoria da escola mediante aprovação prévia dos professores. O local de realização da coleta de dados e da intervenção foi uma sala de aula da escola estudada, localizada em bairro periférico de um município de porte médio da região central do estado de São Paulo. As etapas da pesquisa foram desenvolvidas em seis HTPCs (Horário de Trabalho Pedagógico Coletivo) e as participantes foram 16 professoras e gestoras responsáveis pelas turmas do 1º ao 5º ano do ensino público fundamental. Um estudo piloto realizado previamente com duas voluntárias embasou a elaboração e adequação dos instrumentos de coleta de dados e dos elementos disparadores para o preenchimento dos mesmos. Para a coleta inicial as participantes preencheram entrevista autoguiada, checklist e pré-teste. Após a intervenção, preencheram a avaliação do curso e o pós-teste. Após oito meses, foi realizada coleta de follow-up individual para quem citou alunos atuais com perfis similares aos casos ilustrativos e geral para todas as participantes. A análise dos dados qualitativos foi realizada por meio de eixos teóricos, os dados quantitativos foram analisados por meio do teste t-student adotando-se nível de significância p<0,05. Os resultados evidenciaram que a intervenção foi efetiva para formar opiniões sobre temas novos e desconhecidos pelas participantes, uma vez que houve um movimento das respostas deixadas em branco no pré-teste para respostas respondidas corretamente no pós-teste. Entretanto o curso se mostrou ineficaz para modificar concepções já pré-estabelecidas de forma incorreta na coleta inicial. O follow-up mostrou que, para esta temática abordada com a intervenção construída nesta pesquisa, esse tipo de formação continuada não foi capaz de transformar os participantes em agentes de prevenção e ação. Ou seja, a formação continuada realizada obteve resultados positivos a curto prazo no que tange à transmissão de informação e o sentimento de empoderamento, porém a longo prazo não obteve resultados positivos no que diz respeito a mudança de atitudes.

Le présent travail vise à approfondir la problématique de l’autonomie en apprentissage, considéré comme une exigence incontournable de l’éducation. Il aborde le sujet étudié en tenant compte de la dimension culturelle et part du constat d’une difficulté d’application des modèles occidentaux dans le contexte de l’apprentissage du français langue étrangère au Vietnam. Il s’appuie sur une recherche abductive utilisant la méthode d’analyse par théorisation ancrée qui favorise des allers-retours successifs entre le travail empirique et les théories mobilisées. Un corpus riche et complexe a été recueilli au moyen du filmage, des entretiens, de l’écriture des journaux de bord des quatre étudiants suivis, des échanges par courriels et de la prise de notes. Dégager la complexité du concept d’autonomie a exigé l’exploration des notions de stratégie et de compétence ainsi que l’identification des difficultés lors des apprentissages. Ce travail a permis de révéler que l’émotion joue un rôle intermédiaire dans la relation interdépendante des composantes de l’apprentissage. Cette relation est fondée sur des causalités à la fois linéaire et cyclique. En montrant les types d’entraves dont l’acteur-apprenant doit se délivrer pour devenir autonome, l’étude affirme la nécessité pour l’apprenant de garder l’équilibre entre des modes analytique et synthétique. Soutenir l’apprenant dans son apprentissage implique que le tuteur l’accompagne vers cet équilibre et s’efforce lui-même aussi de le maintenir durant le processus de soutien. / The aim of this thesis is to analyse in depth the question of learner autonomy, considered to be a fundamental requirement in the educational field. Adopting a cultural perspective, the study acknowledges first of all the difficulty in applying western models to the context of learning French as a foreign language in Vietnam. It adopts an abductive research method based on a grounded theory approach entailing successive interplay between empirical work and theory. A rich and complex corpus has been collected through filming, interviews, the log-books of the four students observed, the exchange of emails and note-taking. In order to elucidate the complexity of the concept of autonomy it was necessary to explore the notions of strategy and competence and to identify learning difficulties. The study reveals notably that emotion plays an intermediary role in the interdependent relationship between the different learning components. This relationship is based upon both linear and cyclical causality. By showing the different obstacles the actor-learner must overcome in order to be autonomous, the study affirms the necessity to keep a balance between analytic and synthetic modes of thinking. Scaffolding the leaner’s development requires the tutor to accompany him/her towards this balance and to endeavour to maintain the same balance during the scaffolding process.

This thesis explores the possibilities of employing a dynamic difficulty adjustment system in a role playing video game. The purpose is to aid developers in designing games that can detect and lead players into their own flow zone. We have developed theories and ways on how a system could do this, and then proceeded to make our own prototype to see if the theories would work. We then applied this to a game prototype to explore how this affects other game design choices. Results show that role playing games can adopt the system in different ways, that are all personal and individual to each game, but that the system in the end always should provide aid in game balance, and ultimately, leading the players towards their flow zone. It also resulted in some serious issues and loopholes that would require much attention if it is to be deployed in a commercial product. / Denna uppsatsen utforskar möjligheterna av att använda ett dynamiskt svårighetsgradssystem i digitala rollspel. Syftet med arbetet är att ge utvecklare stöd med att designa spel som kan finna och hjälpa till att leda sina spelare till deras respektive flow-zon. Vi har utvecklat teorier och tillvägagångssätt för hur ett system skulle kunna göra detta och sedan fortsatt med att göra en egen prototyp för att vidare utforska hur det påverkar andra val i speldesign. Resultaten visar att rollspel kan anpassa sig efter systemet på ett antal olika sätt, där alla olika sätt är unika till spelet i fråga, men att systemet alltid ger stöd i spelbalansering och i slutändan leder spelaren till dess flow-zon. Det resulterade också i ett antal allvarliga problem som kräver mycket uppmärksamhet innan systemet kan användas för kommersiellt bruk.

Comment expliquer que des juges non élus puissent écarter la volonté des représentants élus et responsables devant le peuple ? La critique principale adressée à l’encontre du contrôle juridictionnel de constitutionnalité des lois renvoie ainsi à sa dimension anti-démocratique, puisque les conceptions classiques de la démocratie mettent l’accent sur l’élection. Aux États-Unis, cette « difficulté contre-majoritaire » est encore accentuée en raison des origines prétoriennes du "judicial review". Cette étude, centrée sur la Cour suprême, ne vise pas à résoudre la difficulté contre-majoritaire, au demeurant insoluble. L’objectif est d’étudier comment a opéré, et continue d’opérer, la critique contre-majoritaire, à analyser les causes structurelles de la prégnance du débat, et à voir s’il peut être relativisé. Il est en effet possible d’apprécier la dimension majoritaire du "judicial review", au sens où il traduit les aspirations majoritaires du corps social. Entre le « noble rêve», celui d’une Cour héroïquement contre-majoritaire qui protègerait les droits des minorités, et le « cauchemar », celui d’une Cour tyrannique imposant sa volonté, il existe un espace dans lequel on peut envisager la réalité de ce que font les juges. La mise en lumière de l’influence de l’opinion publique sur la Cour ouvre la voie à une appréciation réaliste de ce qu’est le "judicial review", ce qui suppose de s’éloigner des modèles formalistes. Cette relativisation de la difficulté contre-majoritaire n’est pas une résolution de la question. Parce que les travaux de légitimation tendent à banaliser un pouvoir qui doit rester l’objet de discussions, il n’est même pas souhaitable que la question soit résolue / Why should nine unelected judges be able to disregard the will of elected officials accountable to the people ? The main criticism against judicial review highlights its anti-democratic dimension since democracy has long been defined by reference to the majoritarian principle. In the United States, this countermajoritarian difficulty is particularly accentuated in light of the origins of judicial review. This research does not aim to solve the countermajoritarian difficulty, which is in fact unsolvable. The goal is rather to study how the countermajoritarian criticism deployed itself in the course of American history and continues to operate today, to analyze the structural factors explaining the salience of the debate and to consider whether the difficulty can be put into perspective. A careful analysis of the Supreme Court’s case law reveals its majoritarian dimension, in the sense that the Court’s decisions tend to reflect the state of public opinion. Between the «noble dream» of a Court heroically protecting minority rights, and the « nightmare » of a Court tyrannically imposing its will, there is a space in which the reality of the actions of the Court can be analyzed. The evidence of a correlation between public opinion and the Supreme Court paves the way for a more realistic assessment of judicial review and reinforces the need to escape from formalistic modes of reasoning. However, this relativization of the countermajoritarian difficulty does not amount to a resolution of the difficulty. In fact, it is because legitimating efforts tend to normalize a power which should remain a source of discussion that it is ultimately not desirable that the question be solved

Notre travail est une étude didactique, traductologique et linguistique. L’objectif de ce travail est de trouver une solution à l’enseignement de la traduction français-arabe/ arabe-français dans le cursus de FLE dans les universités irakiennes. Le manque d’avancée notable dans le domaine de l’enseignement de la traduction et de la mise en œuvre des procédés didactiques en classe est le fruit d’un déséquilibre entre le programme dans les départements de français et le bagage linguistique et les compétences didactiques de l’enseignant. L’intériorisation de la grammaire de la langue cible est l’un des objectifs principaux en didactique des langues. Le recours par l’enseignant de la classe de traduction à une grammaire explicite favorise-t-il ou entrave-t-il l’intériorisation de la grammaire des langues ? Il est nécessaire que la formation initiale des enseignants de langue et de traduction comporte une solide initiation à deux modèles métalinguistiques.Malgré les études universitaires croissantes pour l’enseignement de la traduction, il n’existe à notre connaissance aucune étude, surtout en Irak, portant sur la didactique de la traduction entre le français et l’arabe qui permettrait d’acquérir la compétence traductionnelle à des apprenants de langues étrangères. Ce travail est important pour le système universitaire en Irak car il n’a jamais fait l’objet d’une étude approfondie. Il est nécessaire pour créer des départements de traduction français –arabe dans les universités irakiennes. Notre initiative s’accompagne de l’introduction en Irak de méthodes nouvelles de traduction comme l’AMD (Analyse matricielle définitoire).Ce travail s’attaque notamment aux difficultés linguistiques de la traduction à partir des traductions des apprenants irakiens des universités de Bagdad et d’Al-Mustansiriyah. Dans cette optique, nous avons réalisé une enquête auprès des professeurs de français et des étudiants de ces universités.La finalité de ce travail est une réflexion qui vise à :Entrainer les enseignants à faire des analyses linguistiques qui leur fassent prendre conscience du fonctionnement de leur langue (en l’occurrence l’arabe) et des différences de fonctionnement entre leur langue et la langue vers laquelle ou à partir de laquelle ils traduisent (en l’occurrence le français). L’analyse doit se focaliser sur le fonctionnement de la langue et non sur l’apprentissage ou la comparaison du métalangage ou telle théorie linguistique ou grammaticale même si le formateur doit, lui, avoir une formation linguistique théorique cohérente.III Faire découvrir aux enseignants les débats contradictoires et souvent violents que connait la traductologie et leur fournir les outils qui leur permettent d’adopter une attitude critique au sein de ces débats.Apprendre aux enseignants à se construire une méthode de traduction avec un protocole relativement précis qui en définit les différentes étapes. Leur apprendre à justifier la méthode qu’ils auront choisie. / Our work is a didactic, traductologic, and linguistic study. This work aims to find a solution for the French-Arabic / Arabic-French translation teaching in French as Foreign Language courses in Iraqi universities.The lack of noteworthy advances in translation teaching and the implementation of didactic techniques is the result of an imbalance between the program of French departments and the linguistic and didactic skills of the teacher.The interiorization of the target language grammar is one of the principal aims in language didactics. When a translation teacher resorts to an explicit grammar point, does this promote or hinder the interiorization of the grammar? It is necessary that the language and translation teachers pre-service training contains a solid introduction to two metalinguistic models.Despite the increasing number of studies on translation teaching, there is, to our knowledge, no study, especially in Iraq, on didactics of French-Arabic translation to the foreign language learners which could let them acquire translation skills. This work is important for the Iraqi academic system because there was no in-depth study on this matter before. It is necessary for the creation of French- Arabic translation departments in Iraqi universities. Our initiative includes the introduction of the new translation methods in Iraq as the DMA (Defining Matrix Analysis).This work particularly tackles the linguistic difficulties in translation using translations of Iraqi learners at the universities of Baghdad and Al-Mustansiriyah. With this in mind, we conducted a survey among teachers of French and students of these universities. The purpose of this work is a reflection which aims to: Entrain the teacher to make linguistic analysis which will help them to become aware of the functioning of their language (in this case Arabic) and the differences of functioning between their language and the source language or the target language (in this case French). This analysis must focus on the functioning of the language and not on the learning or the comparison of the metalanguage or of a linguistic or grammatical theory, even if the tutor himself must have a consistent knowledge of linguistic theories.Make teachers capable of discovering the contradictory, often violent, debates that the traductologie can supply them with the tools that allow them to adopt a critical attitude within these debates.  Instruct teachers to build a translation method with a relatively precise protocol that defines the different steps. Teach them to justify the method they have chosen.