Les effets négatifs des produits pharmaceutiques (PPs) sur les écosystèmes aquatiques est une préoccupation de plus en plus sensible. Nous avons analysé les effets du 17α-éthinylestradiol (EE2), composant des pilules contraceptives, et de la fluoxétine (FLX), l'antidépresseur le plus vendu au monde, sur deux poissons. Le pejerrey (Odontesthes bonariensis) vit dans des lagunes qui sont des réservoirs d'eaux usées, où la présence d'EE2 est détectée. En utilisant l'expression des gènes cyp19a1b (aromatase cérébrale) et cyp19a1a (aromatase gonadique) comment marqueurs biologiques nous avons constaté que l'exposition à EE2 n'affectait pas l'expression du gène cyp19a1b. Cependant, augmente significativement l'expression du cyp19a1a, liée à la différenciation ovarienne, et diminue l'expression de hsd11b2, liée a la différenciation testiculaire, chez les larves et mâles juvéniles. Aussi, produit une déviation des ratios male/femelles en faveur des femelles chez les larves et l'apparition de caractéristiques typique du développement ovarien dans les testicules de mâles juvéniles. Chez le poisson zèbre (Danio rerio) nous avons évalué le rôle de la sérotonine (5-HT) comme modulateur de la prolifération; et l'effet de la FLX, inhibiteur sélectif de sa recapture. Tout d'abord, nous avons montré que les neurones sérotoninergiques de l'hypothalamus sont générés à partir de cellules gliales radiaires présente dans cette région. Ensuite, nous avons constaté une réduction significative du nombre de cellules en prolifération dans le noyau du recessus lateral (NRL) et posterior (NRP) de l'hypothalamus, après de l'inhibition de la synthèse de 5-HT ; et dans le NRL, après d'exposition a FLX. / Over the last 10-15 years risks of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the environment have acquired significant relevance. In the present work we studied the effects of 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), component of contraceptive pills, and fluoxetine (FLX), the world’s most widely prescribed antidepressant, in fishes. Pejerrey (Odontesthes bonariensis) a south American teleost fish that inhabit aquatic ecosystems where EE2 has been reported. Exposure to EE2 did not alter the expression of cyp19a1b (brain aromatase). In contrast, expression of cyp19a1a (gonadal aromatase), involved in ovarian differentiation, was up-regulated; while expression of hsd11b2, associated with testicular differentiation, was down-regulated in larvae or juvenile males. Also, EE2 was able to shift sex ratios toward the female in larvae and alter the gonadal morphology of testicles of juvenile males. In zebrafish, a model organism considered as a useful tool in EDs screening, we investigated the potential role of serotonin (5-HT) as modulators of brain cell proliferation; in particular, we also analyzed the effects of FLX, a selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor. We showed that 5-HT neurons of the hypothalamus originate from proliferative radial glial cells presents in this area. Treatment 5-HT synthesis inhibitor and exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of FLX caused a significant decrease in the number of proliferating cells in the hypothalamus, resulting in a further decline in the number of own 5-HT neurons. These results provide evidence for the detrimental effect in teleost fish induced by the exposure to two pharmaceuticals considered as endocrine disruptors.

Les corps de direction de l’administration pénitentiaire, à l’instar des cadres de la fonction publique, connaissent un processus remarquable de féminisation. Bien que nombreuses - les directrices représentent environ 45% de l’encadrement - et très diplômées, elles restent rares à occuper des postes à hautes responsabilités et sont, au contraire, surreprésentées dans des activités de cadre intermédiaire. En ce sens, les directeurs pénitentiaires ne font pas figure d’exception dans les professions de l’encadrement de la fonction publique ou du secteur privé. Qu’il s’agisse des Directeurs des Services Pénitentiaires ou des Directeurs Pénitentiaires d’Insertion et de Probation, leurs parcours restent en conformité avec les rôles de sexes attribués aux hommes et aux femmes. Ces dernières, prioritairement assignées à la sphère familiale tentent de concilier au mieux carrière et vie privée tandis que les directeurs, dans les pas de leurs prédécesseurs, perpétuent le triptyque au fondement de leur identité professionnelle : autorité, mobilité, disponibilité. A l’appui d’une analyse quantitative exhaustive et d’une enquête par entretiens menée auprès de 22 personnels de direction, nous observons l’existence d’un plafond de verre et une distribution genrée des emplois, résultant de freins organisationnels et de représentations sexuées d’une fonction considérée encore comme masculine. Les différentes réformes qu’a connues l’administration pénitentiaire, visant à moderniser cette institution, ont introduit néanmoins des changements dans la manière d’exercer la fonction et ont probablement favorisé la féminisation du métier. Pour autant, ces avancées apparaissent encore trop ténues et récentes pour remettre en question les schémas d’une division sexuelle du travail séculaire et déverrouiller tous les accès à l’égalité professionnelle pour les femmes. La persistance des stéréotypes, réactivée par une mixité essentialisée, reste un obstacle majeur d’autant que la féminisation des corps de direction provoque des inquiétudes, et des résistances, plus ou moins visibles. / The management corps of prison administration, like public service management, is experiencing a remarkable process of feminization. Although numerous, female directors represent 45% of the managers and very qualified, they rarely hold high responsibility positions and are on the contrary over represented as middle managers. In this sense, prison authority directors are not an exception in public service administration or private sector management. Whether penitentiary service directors or integration and probation directors, their backgrounds are in accordance with the gender roles attributed to men and women. The later (women), primarily assigned to the family sphere, try to best conciliate career and private life whereas male managers following in the footsteps of their predecessors, perpetuate the three foundations of professional identity: authority, mobility, availability. In support of a comprehensive quantitative analysis and interviews conducted with 22 managers, we observe a glass of ceiling and gender distribution of jobs, resulting from organization brakes and gender representations for functions still considered as masculine. The various reforms experienced by the prison administration to modernize this institution, have nevertheless introduced changes in how to exercise the function and probably favored the feminization of the profession. However, these advances still appear too tenuous and recent to challenge the patterns of sexual division of labor unlock all access to equal opportunities for women. The persistence of stereotypes, reactivated by an essentialized mix, remains a major obstacle, especially as the feminization of the management profession causes concern and resistance, more or less visible.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-10T10:50:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 CLAUDIA BEATRIZ CARRIAO ALVES.pdf: 1638016 bytes, checksum: dde2cbe405639757b64a34addbaf17a4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-08-14 / This research has investigated a public policy which aims to promote gender equality, combating violence against women and access to education. This is the Thousand Women Program that deals with an exclusion profile: women in socially vulnerable, with low education and at the margins of the labor market. The courses designed by the program strive to be facilitators of social inclusion arising from the development of autonomy and also to propose professional occupation alternatives. This study aimed to investigate the implementation, execution and scope of the Program under the Câmpus Aparecida de Goiania from the Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de Goiás. In order to achieve the goals proposed in this study, we used an exploratory research involving the realization of bibliographical and documentary research, as well as a field research using interviews and questionnaires. The results revealed that the most important target occurred in relation to the elevation of self-esteem, followed by gains related to empowerment and autonomy. The integration into the labor market was not significant, considering there had been no coordination with the productive sector or even assistance to students wishing to settle in association or cooperative. It was verified discrete autonomous and informal performances in the areas of vocational courses completed. Also, it was observed the desire of women to continue their studies in formal or short courses. / Esta pesquisa buscou investigar uma política púbica que visa à promoção da igualdade de gênero, o combate à violência contra mulher e o acesso à educação. Trata-se do Programa Mulheres Mil que se ocupa com um recorte de exclusão: mulheres em situação de vulnerabilidade social, com baixa escolaridade e à margem do mundo do trabalho. Os cursos concebidos pelo Programa empenham-se por serem facilitadores da inclusão social advinda do desenvolvimento da autonomia e por proporem alternativas de ocupação profissional. Objetivou-se pesquisar a implementação, execução e alcance do Programa no âmbito do Câmpus Aparecida de Goiânia do Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de Goiás. Visando alcançar as metas propostas neste trabalho, utilizou-se de uma pesquisa exploratória envolvendo a realização de pesquisa bibliográfica e documental, além de uma pesquisa de campo com a utilização de entrevistas e questionários. A análise dos resultados revelou que o maior alcance se deu em relação à elevação da autoestima, seguida de conquistas relativas ao empoderamento e à autonomia. A inserção no mercado de trabalho não foi expressiva, haja vista não ter ocorrido articulação com o setor produtivo ou mesmo assistência às alunas que desejassem se estabelecer em associação ou cooperativa, sendo verificadas discretas atuações autônomas ou informais nas áreas profissionalizantes dos cursos concluídos. Observou-se também que o anseio em continuar os estudos se estabeleceu para diversas alunas tanto em cursos formais quanto em outros de curta duração.

A dissertação inscreve-se nos campos dos Estudos de Gênero e dos Estudos Culturais pós-estruturalistas, em interface com a Saúde Coletiva. Nela, problematizo a feminização do HIV/aids no Rio Grande do Sul, tomando como foco o enfrentamento da doença em mulheres grávidas, e considerando o que está disposto nos textos normativos do Plano Integrado de Enfrentamento da Feminização da Epidemia de Aids e outras DST (BRASIL, 2009), da Linha de Cuidado para PVHA e outras DST do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul (2014a) e em alguns de seus desdobramentos. Os documentos foram examinados na perspectiva da análise cultural; para realizá-la, construí um jeito de olhar e de fazer, operando com alguns conceitos como ferramentas analíticas, entre eles: gênero, cultura, linguagem, educação, além de uma redefinição do termo vigilância epidemiológica. Por meio da realização de um exercício intensivo de multiplicação de sentidos dos termos centrais que nomeiam os dois principais documentos – cuidado e enfrentamento –, construí duas unidades analíticas: mulheres, gravidez e cuidados; e a feminização do HIV/aids e seus enfrentamentos. Através da descrição e análise das posições de sujeito corpo grávido e mãe responsável, foi possível problematizar os modos como a feminização do HIV/aids tem sido pautada nos programas de enfrentamento, quando se trata de mulheres grávidas, destacando-se aí os investimentos das biopolíticas sobre os corpos e a vida das mulheres, que incidem nas formas de cuidar, de enfrentar e de ser mulher em tempos de HIV/aids. / This dissertation is inserted in the fields of Gender Studies and post-structuralist Cultural Studies, approaching Public Health. It address the feminization of HIV/AIDS in Rio Grande do Sul, especially how pregnant women cope with the disease, considering what is provided in the normative texts in the Integrated Plan to Combat the Feminization of AIDS Epidemic and other STDs (BRASIL, 2009), in the Care Guidelines for PLWHA and other STDs of Rio Grande do Sul (2014a) and in some of its consequences. The documents were analyzed from the perspective of cultural analysis, through the conception of a way of looking and doing, considering some concepts as analytical tools, including gender: culture, language, education, and a redefinition of the term epidemiological surveillance. By conducting an intensive exercise of multiplying the meanings of central terms that name the two main documents - care and combat -, two analytical units were established: women, pregnancy and care; and the feminization of HIV/AIDS and how to combat it. Through the description and analysis from the positions of the subjects pregnant body and responsible mother, it was possible to discuss the ways how the feminization of HIV/AIDS has been addressed in the prevention programs of HIV infection, when it comes to pregnant women, highlighting the investments in biopolitics concerning the bodies and lives of women, that focus on ways of protecting, coping with and being a woman in HIV/AIDS times.

Tese realizada nas discussões da Linha de Pesquisa Trabalho, Movimentos Sociais e Educação (TRAMSE), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Educação (PPGEDU), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS). Tem por base o problema: que contradições fundamentais existem nas concepções políticas do e no trabalho das pedagogas e pedagogos da rede pública, Estadual e Municipal, no Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Brasil? As informações, coletadas entre 2016 e 2017, com dois instrumentos: questionário online e entrevista semiestruturada. Participam duzentas e vinte e um/a Pedagogas/os, de quarenta e seis municípios do RS, das quais, 95% são mulheres que trabalham em diferentes setores da educação básica. A Pesquisa, de natureza qualitativa, com a técnica de triangulação, se apoia, também, nas informações quantitativas, processadas com uso do software IBM SPSS. O método de exposição, à luz do materialismo histórico e dialético. A hipótese central, elaborada a partir dos resultados da pesquisa, afirma que o trabalho das/os pedagogas/os é uma práxis política. Há ênfase na centralidade do trabalho, cujos sentidos não se limitam na sua não redução ao conjunto de tarefas escolares rotineiras. A práxis se objetiva contraditoriamente no trabalho, assim, se destacam duas principais tendências: a) a pedagogia como experiência individual e ênfase na formação cognitiva e, b) a pedagogia como práxis de luta social e processo de organização coletiva. Com efeito, há uma contradição entre a jornada formal que diz respeito à carga horária paga pelo o fundo público e a jornada real, que estende aquela em maior ou menor grau, considerando o tempo destinado ao planejamento, transporte e a tripla jornada de trabalho. Essa contradição, em muitos casos, é invisibilizada, devido ao costume que o senso comum naturaliza por meio da ideologia. As condições da objetivação do trabalho são condicionadas pelo modo de produção vigente, portanto a luta contra a precarização constitui a práxis de trabalhadoras/es que buscam, por dentro das contradições capital-trabalho, resistência e enfrentamento. / The thesis was developed inside the research line Labor, Social Movements and Education (TRAMSE) into the Education Post-graduation Program (PPGEDU) at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS). The main question of this research was: what kinds of contradictions exist into the public educators’ conception about politics and labor? In this case, we used the term public educators to reference teachers who have been working for the State (Rio Grande do Sul -RS) and the municipalities in RS, Brazil. The data was collected between 2016 and 2017 using two methodological tools: online survey and semi structured interview. This research had two hundred twenty one educators participating from forty six municipalities in RS; moreover, 95% were women who worked in different basic education’s sectors. Also, this research had a dual nature: quantitative and qualitative. To the quantitative part was used the software IBM SPSS. Then, to the qualitative part was used the methodological triangulation, analyzed by historic dialectic materialism as a theoretical framework. The main hypothesis, concluded by our results showed that the educator’s work is a political praxis. In addition, there is an emphasis on the work’s centrality, whose meanings are not limited in to the set of routine school tasks The praxis appeared in contradiction inside the labor. In this way, is possible to see two tendencies: a) the pedagogy as an individual experience with emphasis into the cognitive formation and b) the pedagogy as praxis by the social struggle and the collective organization process. Consequently, there is a contradiction between the formal journey that is related with the workload paid, and the real journey that embraced the time of transportation, planning, and the extra hours that are not included into the work journey. This contradiction turns invisible for the society by the custom that the common sense has in naturalizes this fact; as a consequence, it is an idea developed by the ideology. The conditions of work’s objectification are delimited by our actual production mode. In this way, the fights against the precarious build the workers' praxis that search for, inside the contradictions of labor-capital, resistance and confront. / Tesis realizada en las discusiones de la Línea Investigación Trabajo, Movimiento Sociales y la Educación (TRAMSE), Programa de Posgraduación en Educación (PPGEDU), Universidad Federal de Río Grande del Sur (UFRGS). Tiene como base el problema: que contradicciones fundamentales existen en la concepciones políticas del y en el trabajo de las pegagogas y pedagogos de la red pública, Estadual y Municipal, en Río Grande del Sur (RS), Brasil? Las informaciones, recogida entre 2016 y 2017, con dos instrumentos: cuestionarios online y entrevista semiestructurada. Participan doscientos veinte una Pedagogas/os de cuarenta y seis municípios de RS, de la cuales, 95% son mujeres que trabajan en diferentes sectores de la educación básica. La investigación, de naturaleza cuantitativa, con la técnica de triangulacion, se apoya también en las informaciones cuantitativa procesadas con el uso del Software IBM MSPSS. El método de exposición, a la luz del materialismo histórico y dialéctico. La hipótesis central elaborada a partir de los resultados de la investigación, afirma que el trabajo de las pedagogas/os es una práxis política Hay un enfoque en la centralidad del trabajo, cujos sentidos no se limitan en su no reducción al conjunto de tareas escolares de la rutina. La práxis se objetiva contradictoriamente en el trabajo, así se destacan dos principales tendencias: a) la pedagogía como experiencia individual y enfoque en la formación cognitiva y, b) la pedagogía como práxis de la lucha social y proceso de organización colectiva. En efecto hay una contradicción entre la jornada formal que se refiere a la carga horária paga por el fundo público y la jornada real, que extiende aquella en mayor o menor grado, considerando el tiempo destinado al planeamiento, transporte y a triple jornada de trabajo. Essa contradicción en muchos casos es invisibilizada debido a la costumbre de que el sentido común se naturaliza por medio de la ideología. Las condiciones de la objetivacion del trabajo son condicionadas por el modo de producción vigente, por tanto la lucha contra la precarizacion constituyen la práxis de trabajadoras/es que buscan, por dentro de las contradicciones capital-trabajo resistencia y enfrentamiento.

Submitted by Cristiane Chim (cristiane.chim@ucpel.edu.br) on 2018-06-06T12:15:54Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Clarissa Bittencourt Ribeiro.pdf: 1041329 bytes, checksum: 56e72616425b8fdf23bddd42a58c7014 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-06-06T12:15:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Clarissa Bittencourt Ribeiro.pdf: 1041329 bytes, checksum: 56e72616425b8fdf23bddd42a58c7014 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-02-26 / The present study aims to problematize the aging population in contemporary times, especially in Brazil, from a critical view that comprehends the old age as a social problematic, once this manifests itself in different ways, where the insertion of the subjects is conditioned to the social context. Hence, the approaches related to aging and old age issues are linked to the scope of public policies, since they are perceived as expressions of the social questions, therefore, objects of social policies. It is worth noting that the research made a cut in the gender issue, understanding that, against a capitalist, class, patriarchal and conservative society, women are not included with an equal condition within the world of work, when in comparison to men, implying in an old age marked by vulnerabilities. In this sense, the explanations that follow bring notes referring to the socio-familiar transformations experienced in modern society linked to work as a fundamental category for the discussions in a critical perspective, supported in the critical-dialectical method, pointing out the representation of women in these contexts, as well as the implications of these transformations in the aging process. The feminization of old age is equally emphasized since this phenomenon has been identified in contemporary society. Against the above, social protection for the elderly is contemplated in this study, focusing on the Benefit of Continuous Installment (BPC), for that it materializes as a transfer of income that although inserted in the context of fragmented and precarious policies, has been contributing to addressing vulnerabilities experienced by older women. It is important to note that this dissertation is based on field research carried out in the Popular Restaurant of Pelotas, where elderly women beneficiaries of the BPC emanated their voices and their life stories. / O presente estudo objetiva problematizar o envelhecimento populacional na contemporaneidade, especialmente no Brasil, a partir de uma visão crítica que entende que a velhice se manifesta de diferentes modos, condicionada ao contexto social em que se inserem os sujeitos. Para tanto, as abordagens relativas às questões que perpassam o envelhecimento e a velhice vinculam-se ao âmbito das políticas públicas, uma vez que são percebidas enquanto expressões da questão social, logo, objetos de políticas sociais. Destaca-se que a pesquisa fez um recorte na questão de gênero, entendendo que, diante de uma sociedade capitalista, de classe, patriarcal e conservadora, as mulheres não estão inseridas em iguais condições no mundo do trabalho, quando comparadas aos homens, implicando em uma velhice marcada por vulnerabilidades. Nesse sentido, as explanações que seguem trazem apontamentos referentes às transformações sócio-familiares vivenciadas na sociedade moderna vinculadas ao trabalho enquanto categoria fundamental para as discussões numa perspectiva crítica, amparada no método crítico-dialético, apontando a representação da mulher nesses contextos, bem como as implicações dessas transformações no processo de envelhecimento. A feminização da velhice é igualmente enfatizada, uma vez que esse fenômeno vem sendo identificado na sociedade contemporânea. Diante do exposto, a proteção social destinada à pessoa idosa é contemplada nesse trabalho, com enfoque ao Benefício de Prestação Continuada (BPC), por esse se materializar enquanto transferência de renda que, apesar de inserido no âmbito de políticas fragmentadas e precárias, vem contribuindo para o enfrentamento das vulnerabilidades vivenciadas por mulheres idosas. Cabe a ressalva de que essa dissertação está pautada em uma pesquisa de campo realizada no Restaurante Popular de Pelotas, onde mulheres idosas beneficiárias do BPC emanaram suas vozes e suas histórias de vida.

Une même hormone peut exercer des effets différents sur le développement des caractéristiques de type femelle selon la période à laquelle elle est produite : lstradiol nous a ainsi dévoilé son double jeu, révélant à la fois des effets déféminisants prénataux pouvant sexercer jusqu5ème jour postnatal et des effets féminisants sexerçant dès le 15ème jour postnatal. / A steroid hormone can have different effects on female characteristics development according to the period it is produced : estradiol has defeminizing effects on brain development until postnatal day 5, and feminizing effects from postnatal day 15.

The thesis deals with the development of the secondary school teaching professionduring the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century. The emphasisof the study is on the concurrence of three structural processes in this profession:feminization, professionalization and governmental bureaucratization.The "teachers of the people" found themselves deeply affected by radical economicand social structural changes during the transition from classical industrialcapitalism to organized capitalism at the end of the 19th century. These strucuralchanges aggravated the conflicts between the classes and the sexes in society, andthe elementary school became an important institution for social and ideologicalcontrol. But the teachers were not content to be the mindless instruments of thepredominant ideology. At an early stage the elementary school and the teachersthemselves began to live "a life of their own". Both male and female teachers beganto develop strategies in the struggle for power and control over their profession. Inother words, a process of professionalization began.At the same time as the teachers were organized collectively the women's share ofthe profession increased. The teaching of the lower classes was considered verysuitable for unmarried middle-class women, and the cheap female labour wasattractive to the politicians. There were risks of clashes between male and femaleinterests, since the profession also attracted young men from the farming andworking classes, who saw possibilities of social advancement in this sector of theschool system.The men developed different strategies against their female colleagues. Duringthe whole of the 19th century women were integrated into the professional project.At the turn of the century the men developed a strategy of social closure againstwomen, which meant that these were relegated to a lower level. At the same timethe government introduced regulations which were intended to impede women'sfast access to the profession. This triggered off an open conflict between the sexes inthe profession, since the changes were initiated by male elementary school teacherswho were leaders of the professional program as well as leading politicians in thegovernment and the Riksdag. / <p>Vissa bilder borttagna av upphovsrättskäl.</p> / digitalisering@umu

This M.A. thesis consists of a close-textual reading of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz’s four sets of villancicos dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary (1676, 1679, 1685 and 1690), with a special focus on Sor Juana’s marianism and a contrast with Juan Correa’s painting, La Asunción de la Virgen (1689). This thesis will cover Sor Juana’s innovation in her representation of Mary as a model of femininity, Mary’s creative abilities, the crowning of Mary, Mary as a dwelling for God, Sor Juana’s feminization of the divine, Mary’s Assumption itself, masculine aspects and professions attributed to Mary, and Sor Juana’s identification with the Virgen.

This study focuses on the relationship between global economy and women&rsquo / s labor within a feminist standpoint by examining the personal and occupational experiences of immigrant women doing domestic work in Turkey. The main concern of this study is to investigate how working and living experiences of immigrant domestic women workers in Turkey are shaped by their illegal worker and immigrant status. The aim of this study is to listen to the personal experiences of immigrant domestic women workers from themselves, and understand their working conditions and social life experiences in Turkey. There emerged a trend in trading domestic workers between the poor and rich countries since 1990s where many parties, including governments, illegal recruitment agencies, and individual employers benefited. The high unemployment, poverty, shortfalls in living standards, and loss of government-sponsored public services due to the IMF policies implemented by the governments of developing countries severely affected poor and women. For their family survival, women of developing countries forced to migrate in order to seek domestic work in richer countries, where there is a high demand of middle class women for domestic workers. On the other hand, since domestic work is devalued as informal work, policy-makers do not pay sufficient attention, and provide a legal framework regulating the recruitment process and protecting the rights of immigrant domestic women workers. Therefore, immigrant domestic women workers are in a vulnerable position and open to exploitation due to their illegal and immigrant status. Turkey has been one of the domestic worker exporting countries since early 1990s mostly from post-Soviet countries. However, she neither has bilateral agreements with the sending countries nor a legal framework protecting the rights of immigrant domestic women workers. Hence, immigrant women are subject to arbitrary treatment and exploitation both in their workplace and outside, and remained invisible.