A lesão medular (LM) é uma patologia incapacitante que resulta em déficits sensoriais e motores. No Brasil, a incidência anual é de 30 novos casos de lesão medular a cada 1 milhão de indivíduos e, infelizmente, a LM permanece sem um tratamento eficaz. Células-tronco derivadas do dente decíduo humano estão entre as potenciais fontes de células-tronco para transplante após a lesão medular, cujo objetivo é de promover a proteção ou a recuperação da lesão na medula espinal. Buscou-se nesta tese avaliar os efeitos do transplante, uma hora após a lesão, das células tronco de dente decíduo humano (SHED) no período agudo, subagudo e crônico sobre a neuroproteção, proteção tecidual e recuperação funcional em ratos Wistar submetidos à lesão medular por contusão. Os principais objetivos foram: a) investigar os efeitos do transplante das SHED sobre a recuperação funcional, volume da lesão e morte neuronal; b) verificar os efeitos do transplante sobre as células progenitoras, formação da cicatriz glial e modificações astrocitárias após o modelo de contusão medular Observou-se a melhora na recuperação funcional, redução do volume da lesão e morte neuronal na medula espinal dos animais que receberam o transplante de SHED após a lesão medular. As SHED aumentam o número de células precursoras na medula espinal, no período subagudo, reduzem a expressão da proteína fibrilar glial ácida (GFAP) e aumentam a expressão do canal retificador de influxo de potássio 4.1, ambas proteínas astrocitárias. Concluímos que o transplante de células-tronco derivadas do dente decíduo humano após a lesão medular promove a recuperação funcional a partir do efeito neuroprotetor iniciado na fase aguda, confirmado pelo maior número de neurônios motores presentes seis semanas após a contusão. As SHED são capazes de aumentar o número de células precursoras e de produzir modificações astrocitárias na medula espinal de ratos lesados na fase subaguda, reduzindo a formação da cicatriz glial. / Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a disabling condition that results in sensory and motor deficits. The estimated annual incidence in Brazil is of 30 new cases of spinal cord injury per 1 million of individuals; unfortunately SCI remains without an effective treatment. Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) are one among potential sources of stem cells for transplantation after spinal cord injury in order to promote protection or tissue and functional recovery after spinal cord injury. The aim of this Thesis was to evaluate the effects of stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) transplantation, one hour after lesion, in the acute, subacute and chronic phases on neuroprotection, tissue protection and functional recovery in Wistar rats submitted to spinal cord injury by contusion The main goals were: a) to investigate the effects of SHED transplantation on functional recovery, lesion volume, and neuronal death; b) to verify the effects of the transplantation on the progenitor cells number, glial scar formation and astrocytic modifications after spinal cord contusion. Improvement of functional recovery, reduction of lesion volume and neuronal death were observed in the spinal cord of animals submitted to spinal cord injury and SHED transplantation. SHEDs increased the number of precursor cells in the spinal cord in the subacute period, reduced the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and increased the expression of the potassium influx rectifier channel 4.1, both astrocyte proteins. We conclude that transplantation of stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth after spinal cord injury promotes functional recovery from the neuroprotection effect, which starts in the acute phase and is confirmed six weeks after the contusion with a higher number of motor neurons in the ventral horn of spinal cord. SHEDs are able to increase the number of precursor cells and produce astrocyte modifications in the spinal cord of injured rats in the subacute phase, reducing glial scar formation.

A lesão medular (LM) é uma patologia incapacitante que resulta em déficits sensoriais e motores. No Brasil, a incidência anual é de 30 novos casos de lesão medular a cada 1 milhão de indivíduos e, infelizmente, a LM permanece sem um tratamento eficaz. Células-tronco derivadas do dente decíduo humano estão entre as potenciais fontes de células-tronco para transplante após a lesão medular, cujo objetivo é de promover a proteção ou a recuperação da lesão na medula espinal. Buscou-se nesta tese avaliar os efeitos do transplante, uma hora após a lesão, das células tronco de dente decíduo humano (SHED) no período agudo, subagudo e crônico sobre a neuroproteção, proteção tecidual e recuperação funcional em ratos Wistar submetidos à lesão medular por contusão. Os principais objetivos foram: a) investigar os efeitos do transplante das SHED sobre a recuperação funcional, volume da lesão e morte neuronal; b) verificar os efeitos do transplante sobre as células progenitoras, formação da cicatriz glial e modificações astrocitárias após o modelo de contusão medular Observou-se a melhora na recuperação funcional, redução do volume da lesão e morte neuronal na medula espinal dos animais que receberam o transplante de SHED após a lesão medular. As SHED aumentam o número de células precursoras na medula espinal, no período subagudo, reduzem a expressão da proteína fibrilar glial ácida (GFAP) e aumentam a expressão do canal retificador de influxo de potássio 4.1, ambas proteínas astrocitárias. Concluímos que o transplante de células-tronco derivadas do dente decíduo humano após a lesão medular promove a recuperação funcional a partir do efeito neuroprotetor iniciado na fase aguda, confirmado pelo maior número de neurônios motores presentes seis semanas após a contusão. As SHED são capazes de aumentar o número de células precursoras e de produzir modificações astrocitárias na medula espinal de ratos lesados na fase subaguda, reduzindo a formação da cicatriz glial. / Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a disabling condition that results in sensory and motor deficits. The estimated annual incidence in Brazil is of 30 new cases of spinal cord injury per 1 million of individuals; unfortunately SCI remains without an effective treatment. Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) are one among potential sources of stem cells for transplantation after spinal cord injury in order to promote protection or tissue and functional recovery after spinal cord injury. The aim of this Thesis was to evaluate the effects of stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) transplantation, one hour after lesion, in the acute, subacute and chronic phases on neuroprotection, tissue protection and functional recovery in Wistar rats submitted to spinal cord injury by contusion The main goals were: a) to investigate the effects of SHED transplantation on functional recovery, lesion volume, and neuronal death; b) to verify the effects of the transplantation on the progenitor cells number, glial scar formation and astrocytic modifications after spinal cord contusion. Improvement of functional recovery, reduction of lesion volume and neuronal death were observed in the spinal cord of animals submitted to spinal cord injury and SHED transplantation. SHEDs increased the number of precursor cells in the spinal cord in the subacute period, reduced the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and increased the expression of the potassium influx rectifier channel 4.1, both astrocyte proteins. We conclude that transplantation of stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth after spinal cord injury promotes functional recovery from the neuroprotection effect, which starts in the acute phase and is confirmed six weeks after the contusion with a higher number of motor neurons in the ventral horn of spinal cord. SHEDs are able to increase the number of precursor cells and produce astrocyte modifications in the spinal cord of injured rats in the subacute phase, reducing glial scar formation.

INTRODUÇÃO: As doenças retinianas associadas à neovascularização, tais como a degeneração macular relacionada à idade e as retinopatias diabética e da prematuridade são as principais e mais importantes causas da cegueira em todo o mundo. Nos últimos anos, injeções intravítreas de fármacos com ação antiangiogênica, como o bevacizumabe (BVZ), têm sido de grande valia tanto em pacientes na fase adulta quanto nos recém-natos. Todavia, estudos experimentais in vitro e in vivo sugerem que essas drogas promovam efeitos adversos sobre alguns processos celulares, interferindo diretamente em mecanismos fisiológicos que mantém a homeostase do tecido retiniano, incluindo os mecanismos de proliferação, diferenciação e morte celular. OBJETIVO: investigar o efeito do BVZ nos processos de transcrição e tradução de marcadores da gliose: GFAP e vimentina, de morte celular, caspase-3 e beclina-1, e dos proteoglicanos relacionados à manutenção e desenvolvimento de tecido retiniano: neurocam, fosfacam e sindecam-3. MÉTODOS: Dois modelos experimentais foram usados nesse estudo: 1) linhagem celular de Müller de Glia humana adulta (MIO-M1), cultivada em meio de cultura D-MEM na presença e ausência de BVZ por 12 e 24 horas nas concentrações de 0,25 mg/mL e 0,50 mg/mL e 2) explantes de retinas de ratos 2 dias pós-nascidos submetidos à 0,50 mg/mL da droga por 48 horas. Durante este período foram mantidos a 5% de dióxido de carbono à temperatura de 37°C. A análise de proteínas foi realizada por imunocitohistoquímica e Western Blotting e a expressão de RNAm, pela reação em cadeia da polimerase em tempo real (PCR Real Time). Foi utilizado o Teste de ANOVA - fator único para a comparação entre os grupos controle e tratados com BVZ de um mesmo período (12h ou 24h) e o teste t de Student para a comparação entre as mesmas concentrações de 12h e 24h, e para a comparação entre os grupos controle e tratado com BVZ dos explantes (p < 0,05). RESULTADOS: Nas células MIO-M1, o BVZ, aumentou a expressão gênica e diminui a tradução de VEGF na concentração de 0,50 mg/mL em 24h comparado a 12h. Para o GFAP, houve um aumento da transcrição em 0,50 mg/mL em 24h comparado a 12h e aos outros grupos em 24h. Entretanto, houve diminuição da tradução para estes mesmos períodos e condições. Para a vimentina, houve aumento na transcrição em 0,50 mg/mL após 24h. Os achados de beclina-1 revelaram uma diminuição da transcrição e tradução em 0,25 mg/mL em 24h comparado a 12h. A transcrição entre os grupos do mesmo período aumentou nos grupos tratados com BVZ tanto em 12h quanto em 24h. A tradução da beclina-1 diminuiu em 0,25 mg/mL, mas aumentou em 0,50 mg/mL em 24h em relação à 12h. A comparação entre os grupos de 24h revelou aumento da tradução em 0,50 mg/mL. Para a caspase-3, houve diminuição da transcrição em 0,25 mg/mL e 0,50 mg/mL em 24h em relação a 12h e entre nos grupos tratados com BVZ em 24h. A tradução revelou um aumento em 0,50 mg/mL em 24h em relação a 12h. No fosfacam, houve diminuição da transcrição em 0,50 mg/mL em 24h comparado a 12h e entre os grupos tratados com BVZ e controles para 12h e 24h. A transcrição de neurocam diminuiu em 0,25 mg/mL e 0,50 mg/mL em 24h comparado a 12h e entre os grupos tratados com BVZ e controles em 12h e 24h. A tradução aumentou em 0,50 mg/mL em 24h em relação a 12h, mas diminuiu entre os grupos em 24h. Nos explantes, a transcrição e tradução de VEGF diminuiram no grupo tratado com BVZ após 48h. CONCLUSÃO: Nossos resultados relacionados às células MIO-M1 e ao explante de ratos, in vitro, nos permitem aventar o possível comprometimento ocasionado pela depleção do VEGF pelo BVZ na homeostase do tecido retiniano, in vivo, interferindo nas moléculas envolvidas na morte e diferenciação celular e na neuroproteção em indivíduos em fase adulta e recém-nato / Backgraound: Vasoproliferative retinal disorders such as age-related macular, degeneration, diabetic retinopathy and retinopathy of prematurity are major causes of blindness in the world. In recent years, intravitreal injections of drugs with antiangiogenic action, as bevacizumab, have been very useful for both patients in adulthood and in newborns. However, experimental studies, in vivo and in vitro, suggest that antiangiogenic drugs may promote side effects in cellular proceedings, interfering directly in physiological mechanisms of cellular proliferation, differentiation and death. POURPOSE: Investigate the bevacizumab effects in transcription and translation processes of gliosis, GFAP and vimentin, cellular death markers, caspase-3 and beclin-1, and proteoglycans involved in retinal tissue maintenance and development, neurocan, phosphacan and syndecan-3. METHODS: Two experimental models were used on this research: cellular lineage of adult and human Müller glial cell(MIO-M1) were cultivated on D-MEM medium with 0,25 and 0,50 mg/mL bevacizumab for 12 and 24 hours, and two days old rat retinal explants submitted to 0,50 mg/mL for 48 hours. During this period were stored in laboratory ovens at 5% carbon dioxide pressure and 37 °C average temperature. Molecular techniques were used to evaluate gene expression and protein content. Protein assessments were performed by immunocytochemistry and western blotting analysis, while Real Time PCR was used to measure mRNA content. ANOVA tests one factor were applied to compare the control and BVZ groups of the same period (12h or 24h) and t test from Student to compare the same conditions of 12h and 24h, and to compare the control and BVZ retinal explants groups (p<0.05). RESULTS: At MIO-M1 cells, BVZ increased the gene expression and reduced the translation of VEGF at concentration of 0.50 mg / mL in 24 hours compared to 12 hours. For GFAP, there was an increase of transcription at 0.50 mg / mL in 24 hours compared to 12 hours and to the other groups at 24 hours. However, there was a decrease in translation for these same periods and conditions. For vimentin, there was an increase in transcription at 0.50 mg / mL after 24 hours. The beclin-1 findings revealed a decrease of transcription and translation at 0.25 mg / ml compared at 24 h compared to 12h. Transcription among groups increased in BVZ treated groups at 12h and 24h. The translation of beclin-1 decreased at 0.25 mg / ml, but increased at 0.50 mg / mL at 24 hours compared to 12 hours. The comparison between the groups at 24h revealed an increased in translation at 0.50 mg / mL. For caspase-3, there was a decrease in transcription at 0.25 mg / ml and 0.50 mg / ml at 24 compared to 12 hours and among BVZ treated groups at 24h. Translation revealed an increase at 0.50 mg / mL at 24 hours compared to 12 hours. For fosfacam, there was a decreased in transcription at 0.50 mg / mL in 24 hours compared to 12 hours and among BVZ treated groups and controls at 12h and 24h. The transcription of neurocam decreased at 0.25 mg / ml and 0.50 mg / ml at 24 hours compared to 12 hours and among BVZ treated groups and controls at 12h and 24h. Translation increased at 0.50 mg / mL at 24 compared to 12 hours, but decreased among the groups at 24 hours. For explants, transcription and translation of VEGF decreased in the BVZ group treated after 48h. CONCLUSION: Our results related to the MIO-M1 cells and explants of rats,in vitro, allow us to suggest the possible impairment caused by depletion of VEGF by BVZ in the homeostasis of retinal tissue, in vivo, interfering in the molecules involved in cell death and cell differentiation and neuroprotection in individuals in adulthood and newborns

Le système nerveux est composé de milliards de connexions synaptiques qui forment des réseaux complexes à la base de la communication dans le cerveau. Dès lors, contrôler la localisation, le type et le nombre des synapses est un défi considérable au cours du développement du système nerveux. Étonnamment, la production de connexions synaptiques est démesurée de façon à ce que beaucoup plus de synapses soient formées au cours du développement que ce qui est maintenu chez l’adulte. Ces connexions surnuméraires sont en compétition pour l’innervation d’une même cellule cible ce qui mène au maintien de certaines terminaisons nerveuses et à l’élimination de d’autres. Ces processus de compétition et d’élimination sont grandement façonnés par l’activité du système nerveux et l’expérience sensorielle de manière à ce que les terminaisons qui montrent la meilleure activité sont favorisées alors que les synapses mal adaptées sont éliminées. Jusqu’à récemment, les mécanismes et les types cellulaires responsables de l’élimination synaptique étaient inconnus. Les études de la dernière décennie montrent que les cellules gliales jouent un rôle clé dans l’élimination de synapses. Cependant, il demeure inconnu si les cellules gliales peuvent décoder les niveaux d’activité des terminaisons en compétition, ce qui est un déterminant majeur de l’issue de la compétition synaptique. De plus, il n’est pas connu si les cellules gliales sont capables de réguler l’activité synaptique des terminaisons, ce qui pourrait influencer l’issue de l’élimination synaptique. Ceci est d’un intérêt particulier puisqu’il est connu que les cellules gliales interagissent activement avec les neurones, détectent et modulent leur activité dans plusieurs régions du système nerveux mature. Par conséquent, l'objectif de cette thèse était d'étudier la capacité des cellules gliales à interagir avec les terminaisons nerveuses en compétition pour l'innervation d’une même cellule cible. Nous avons donc analysé la capacité des cellules gliales à décoder l’activité des terminaisons, à réguler leur activité synaptique et à influencer le processus de l’élimination synaptique au cours du développement du système nerveux. Pour cette fin, nous avons profité de la jonction neuromusculaire, un modèle simple et le bien caractérisé, et nous avons combiné l’imagerie Ca2+ des cellules gliales, un rapporteur fiable de leur activité avec des enregistrements synaptiques de jonctions neuromusculaires poly-innervées de souriceaux. Dans la première étude, nous montrons que les cellules gliales détectent et décodent l'efficacité synaptique des terminaisons nerveuses en compétition. L’activité des cellules gliales reflète la force synaptique de chaque terminaison nerveuse et l'état de la compétition synaptique. Ce décodage est médié par des récepteurs purinergiques gliaux fonctionnellement distincts et les propriétés intrinsèques des cellules gliales. Nos résultats indiquent que les cellules gliales décodent la compétition synaptique et, par conséquent, sont favorablement positionnées pour influencer son issue. Dans la seconde étude, nous montrons que les cellules gliales régulent différemment la plasticité synaptique de terminaisons en compétition. De manière dépendante du Ca2+, les cellules gliales induisent une potentialisation persistante de l’activité de la terminaison forte alors qu’elles n’ont que peu d’effets sur la terminaison faible. Bloquer l'activité gliale altère la plasticité des terminaisons in situ et se traduit par un retard de l'élimination des synapses in vivo. Ainsi, nous décrivons un nouveau mécanisme par lequel les cellules gliales, non seulement renforcent activement la terminaison forte, mais influencent aussi la compétition et l'élimination. Dans l'ensemble, ces études sont les premières à démontrer que les cellules gliales sont activement impliquées dans la modulation de l'activité synaptique des terminaisons en compétition ainsi que dans la régulation de l'élimination synaptique et la connectivité neuronale. / The nervous system is composed of billions of synaptic connections forming complex networks that define the basis of neuronal communication in the brain. The control of the localization, type and number of synapses is a considerable challenge during development of the nervous system. Surprisingly, there is an excessive production of synaptic connections so that many more synapses are formed during developmental stages than what is maintained in the adult. A process of competition and elimination then occurs during which connections are in competition for the innervation of the same target cell. These processes of competition and elimination are greatly shaped by activity and sensory experience. Nerve terminals that show the best activity are favoured, while weak and poorly adapted synapses are eliminated. Until recently, the mechanisms and the cell types responsible for the elimination of supernumerary connections were unknown. Studies from the last decade identified glial cells as major players in synapse elimination. However, it remains unknown whether glial cells are able to decode the levels of synaptic activity of competing terminals, which is a major determinant of the outcome of synaptic competition. Moreover, it is unknown whether glial cells are able to regulate synaptic activity, which could influence the outcome of synapse elimination. This is especially relevant because it is known that glial cells actively interact with neurons, detect and modulate their activity in many regions of the nervous system. Therefore, the goal of this thesis was to study the ability of glial cells to interact with terminals competing for the innervation of the same target cell. We tested the ability of glial cells to decode the activity nerve terminals, regulate their synaptic activity and influence the process of synapse elimination during development of the nervous system. For this purpose, we took advantage of the neuromuscular junction, a simple and well-characterized model, and used simultaneous Ca2+-imaging of glial cells, a reliable reporter of their activity and synaptic recordings of dually-innervated neuromuscular junctions from newborn mice. In the first study, we report that single glial cells detect and decode the synaptic efficacy of competing nerve terminals. Activity of single glial cells reflects the synaptic strength of each competing nerve terminal and the state of synaptic competition. This deciphering is mediated by functionally segregated purinergic receptors and intrinsic properties of glial cells. Our results indicate that glial cells decode ongoing synaptic competition and, hence, are poised to influence its outcome. In the second study, we show that glial cells differentially regulate the synaptic plasticity of competing terminals. In a Ca2+-dependent manner, glial cells induce a long lasting synaptic potentiation of strong but not weak terminals. Preventing glial activity alters the plasticity of terminals in situ and delays synapse elimination in vivo. Thus, we describe a novel mechanism by which glial cells, not only actively reinforce the strong input but regulate synapse competition and elimination. As a whole, these studies are the first to demonstrate that glial cells are actively involved in the modulation of synaptic activity of competing terminals as well as in the regulation of synapse elimination and neuronal connectivity.

Hyperfosforylering av biomarkörproteinet Tau förekommer i flera neurodegenerativa sjukdomar som kallas Taupathies. Proteinets huvudfunktion i människokroppen är att modulera flexibilitet och stabilitet för axonal-mikrotubulin. I Taupathies utlöser hyperfosforyleringen av Tau instabilitet och neurodegenerationen. I dagens läge kan hyperfosforylering av treonin 217 (P217) endast mätas i hjärnan. I den här studien undersöks hyperfosforyleringen av treonin 217 (P217). I syfte att se om nivåerna av P217 är mätbara i cerebrospinalvätska (CSV) och i blodet. Samt för att evaluera hur nivåer av P217 förändras i olika Taupathies, genom att testa hjärnprover från friska kontroller och olika Taupathies. Studien görs för att öka kunskapen om effekten av hyperfosforylering av treonin 217 i Taupathies och för att bidra med en ny provtagningsmetod för P217. Simoa HD-1 Analyzer var instrumentet som användes för analyserna av P217. Det är ett instrument som kan upptäcka onormala nivåer av biomarkörer genom kvantifiering, med hjälp av antikroppar och ett enzym. Enzymet kallas Streptavidin β-galaktosidas och omvandlar en befintlig P217-molekyl i proven till en fluorescerande produkt. Genom Simoa HD-1 Analyzer utvecklades en ultrasensitiv analys med antikropparna P217 och Tau 12, som kunde upptäcka mycket låga nivåer av P217 i hjärnan, CSF och i blod. Förändring av P217-nivåer hittades även i olika Taupathies. De Taupathies med de högsta nivåerna av P217 var Progressiv supranukleär pares, Corticobasal degeneration och Globular glial Taupathies. / Hyperphosphorylation of the biomarker protein Tau occurs in many neurodegenerative diseases called Taupathies. The proteins main function in the human body is to modulate flexibility and stability for axonal microtubules. In Taupathies the hyperphosphorylation of the Tau triggers instability and neurodegeneration. Nowdays hyperphoshorylation on threonine 217 (P217) can only be measured in the brain. In this study the hyperphoshorylation on the phosphorylation site of threonine 217 (P217) is examined. In aim to see if levels of P217 is measurable in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and in blood. As well to evaluate how P217 variate in different Taupathies, through the use of brain samples from healthy controls and different Taupathies. The study is made for the purpose of enhancing the pure knowledge about the effect of hyperphosphorylation on threonine 217 in Taupathies and to contribute with a new sampling method for P217. Simoa HD-1 Analyzer was the key instrument of the analyses of P217. It’s an instrument which can detect abnormal levels of biomarkers through quantification, with help of antibodies and an enzyme. The enzyme is called Streptavidin β-galactosidase and converts an existing P217 molecule in the samples to a fluoresce product. Through the use of Simoa HD-1 Analyzer an ultrasensitive assay with antibodies P217 and Tau 12 was developed which could detect very low levels of P217 in brain, CSF and in blood. Variation of P217 levels was also found in different Taupathies. The Taupathies with the highest levels of P217 was Progressive supranuclear palsy, Corticobasal Degeneration and Globular glial Taupathies.

Entre os PRRs (receptores de reconhecimento padrão), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), tal como NOD2, são responsáveis pela detecção intracelular de muramil dipeptídeo (MDP); padrão molecular associado a patógeno (PAMP), encontrado no peptidoglicano (PGN) de praticamente todas bactérias GRAM positiva e negativa. Após o reconhecimento e estimulação por MDP, NOD2 recruta diretamente a serina-treonina quinase RIPK2, uma proteína adaptadora importante na ativação de NF?B mediada por NOD2. A expressão de NOD2 foi descrita em macrófagos e em outras células. Além disso, trabalhos anteriores indicaram que PRRs desempenham papel crucial na ativação de células gliais da medula espinal, na indução e manutenção da dor inflamatória crônica e dor neuropática. No presente estudo, avaliamos o papel de NOD2 na modulação da sensibilidade à dor, focando sua importância na ativação de células da glia da medula espinal, bem como a sua via de sinalização (RIPK2) e liberação de citocinas pró-nociceptivas, como o fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-?), interleucina-6 (IL-6) e interleucina-1 beta (IL-1?). Os resultados demonstram que camundongos selvagens tratados com MDP, apresentaram diminuição no limiar nociceptivo mecânico (pico entre 3 e 5 horas) comparado com o grupo controle (veículo), retornando ao basal após 48 horas. Além disso, camundongos NOD2-/- , RIPK2-/- , TNFR1/2-/- e IL-6 -/- tratados com MDP não diferiram o limiar nociceptivo mecânico, comparado com seus respectivos grupos controle (veículo). Entretanto, camundongos TNFR1- /- , CCR2-/- , TLR4-/- , MyD88-/- e TRIF-/- tratados com MDP, apresentaram diminuição no limiar nociceptivo mecânico similar aos camundongos selvagens tratados com MDP. Adicionalmente, o pré-tratamento de camundongos selvagens com IL-1ra, propentofilina, minociclina, fluorocitrato e SB 203580 inibiu o desenvolvimento da hipersensibilidade mecânica induzida por MDP. Estes dados sugerem que a ativação do sensor intracellular NOD2 esta presente em células da glia da medula espinal e estimula a ativação das vias de sinalização RIPK2 e p38 MAPK com subsequente produção de IL-1?, IL-6 e TNF?, por uma via de sinalização independente de TLR4, MyD88 e TRIF. Finalmente, estes mecanismos contribuem para o processo de hipersensibilidade mecânica durante a neuropatia periférica e representam uma nova abordagem para elucidar os mecanismos envolvidos na fisiopatologia da dor crônica. / Among PRRs (pattern recognition receptors), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), such as NOD2 are responsible by intracellular detection of muramyl dipeptide (MDP); pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) found in the peptidoglycan (PGN) from virtually all gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Upon recognition and stimulation by MDP, NOD2 recruits directly the receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 2 (RIPK2), an adaptor protein important in the NOD2-mediated NF?B activation. The expression of NOD2 has been described in macrophages and other cells. Moreover, previous work has indicated that PRRs play a crucial role in the activation of spinal cord glial cells, in the induction and maintenance of chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the role of NOD2 in the modulation of pain sensitivity, focusing on its importance in the activation of spinal cord glial cells, as well as its signaling pathway (RIPK2) and release of pro-nociceptive cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-?), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1?). The results demonstrate that WT mice treated with MDP showed a decrease in mechanical nociceptive threshold (peak 3 to 5 hours) compared with the control group (vehicle), returning to the base line after 48 hours. Furthermore, NOD2-/- , RIPK2-/- , TNFR1/2-/- and IL-6 -/- mice treated with MDP did not differ the mechanical nociceptive threshold compared with their respective control groups (vehicle). However, TNFR1-/- , CCR2-/- , TLR4-/- , MyD88-/- and TRIF-/- mice treated MDP, showed a decrease in mechanical nociceptive threshold similar to WT mice treated with MDP. In addition, the pretreatment of WT mice with IL-1ra, propentofylline, minocycline, fluorocitrate and SB 203580 inhibited the development of mechanical hypersensitivity induced by MDP. These data suggest that activation of the intracellular sensor NOD2 present in spinal cord glial cells stimulates the activation of RIPK2 and p38 MAPK signaling pathways and subsequent production of IL-1?, IL-6 and TNF?, in a TLR4-, MyD88- and TRIF-independent signaling pathway. Finally, these mechanisms contribute to the process of mechanical hypersensitivity during peripheral neuropathy and represent a novel approach for elucidating the mechanisms underlying pathophysiology of chronic pain.

Neureguline (NDF, Heregulin, GGF ARIA, oder SMDF) sind EGF-ähnliche, extrazelluläre Signalmoleküle, die mit transmembranären Tyrosinkinaserezeptoren der ErbB-Familie interagieren. Neuregulin-1/ErbB Signale steuern während der Embryonalentwicklung und im adulten Organismus vielfältige zelluläre Prozesse, wie z. B. Proliferation, Migration und Differenzierung. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Rolle des Neuregulin-1/ErbB Signalsystems in der Entwicklung von Neuralleistenzellen und sich daraus entwickelnden Komponenten des peripheren Nervensystems (sympathisches Nervensystem und periphere Glia) untersucht. Neuregulin-1 Signale werden in Neuralleistenzellen und ihren Gliaderivaten durch ErbB2/ErbB3 Rezeptor-Heterodimere übertragen. Mit Hilfe von Mäusen mit gezielter Mutation (knock-out) des Neuregulin-1, ErbB2 oder ErbB3 Gens wurde gezeigt, daß Neuregulin-1/ErbB2/3 Signale die Migration sympathogener Neuralleistenzellen steuern. Mutante Tiere entwickeln daher eine hochgradige Hypoplasie des sympathischen Nervensystems. Neuregulin-1 Signale kontrollieren darüber hinaus die Entwicklung von Schwann Zellen. Die Unterbrechung des Neuregulin-1/ErbB2/3 Signalwegs in mutanten Mäusen führt zum Verlust von Schwann Zellen während der Embryogenese. Es wurde außerdem gezeigt, daß der Transkriptionsfaktor Sox10 die Expression von ErbB3 in Neuralleistenzellen kontrolliert. Sox10 und ErbB3 Mutanten besitzen daher übereinstimmende Defekte in der Neuralleistenzellentwicklung. Neben den ErbB3-abhängigen Funktionen von Sox10 wurde eine ErbB3-unabhängige Schlüsselfunktion von Sox10 bei der Differenzierung von Neuralleistenzellen zu peripherer Glia identifiziert. Das Neuregulin-1/ErbB2/3 Signalsystem und der Transkriptionsfaktor Sox10 besitzen also gemeinsam zentrale Funktionen in der Entwicklung peripherer Glia, steuern diesen Prozess aber über unterschiedliche Mechanismen und während unterschiedlicher Entwicklungsphasen. Sox10, ErbB2 und ErbB3 mutante Mäuse entwickeln neben dem Verlust von Schwann Zellen eine sekundäre Degeneration begleitender sensorischer und motorischer Neurone. Dies zeigt, daß periphere Glia Signale generiert, die essentiell sind für Integrität und Überleben begleitender Neurone. / Neuregulins (NDF, heregulin, GGF ARIA, or SMDF) are EGF-like growth and differentiation factors that signal through tyrosine kinase receptors of the erbB family. The neuregulin-1 proteins and their receptors play essential roles during embryonic development and in the adult. Functions of the neuregulin/erbB signaling system in developing neural crest cells and their derivatives (sympathetic nervous system, peripheral glial cells) were analyzed in mice with targeted mutations in the erbB2, erbB3, or neuregulin-1 genes. All three mutations cause severe hypoplasia of the primary sympathetic ganglion chain, and migration of sympathogenic neural crest cells to their target sites, where they differentiate into sympathetic neurons, depends on neuregulin-1 and its receptors. Neuregulin-1 signals are also essential for the development of Schwann cells. As a consequence, mice with targeted mutations in the neuregulin-1/erbB signaling system completely lack Schwann cells. Moreover, the HMG-box transcription factor sox10 is shown to control expression of erbB3 in neural crest cells. In accordance, sox10 and erbB3 mutant mice share phenotypes in the developing neural crest. Additionally, a novel, erbB3-independent developmental function of sox10 was identified: Sox10 is a key regulator for glial fate determination in undifferentiated neural crest cells. Thus, the transcription factor sox10 and the neuregulin-1/erbB signalling system both serve critical functions during development of peripheral glial cells. However, they act via different cellular mechanisms and during different developmental stages. At later developmental stages lack of peripheral glial cells in sox10, erbB2 and erbB3 mutant mice results in a severe degeneration of sensory and motor neurons. The comparison of the mutant phenotypes demonstrates, that peripheral glial cells generate essential signals for the survival and maintenance of accompanying neurons.

A hipóxia-isquemia (HI) é a principal causa de mortalidade no período perinatal e, nos sobreviventes, a incidência de comorbidades neurológicas é elevada. O encéfalo imaturo, altamente susceptível ao insulto hipóxico-isquêmico, é bastante sensível a estímulos ambientais tais como o enriquecimento ambiental (EA). Os objetivos deste estudo foram: 1) investigar o desempenho comportamental em um novo teste de memória e aprendizagem, o Ox-maze; 2) analisar a atividade das enzimas Na+,K+-ATPase, catalase (CAT) e glutationaperoxidase (GPx) no hipocampo; 3) caracterizar os neurônios piramidais da região CA1 hipocampal quanto à arborização dendrítica; 4) analisar alterações astrocíticas e sinápticas pela avaliação da imunoreatividade das proteínas GFAP e sinaptofisina usando a técnica de imunofluorescência e, 5) quantificar a densidade celular por meio de cortes semifinos da região CA1 do hipocampo de animais hipóxico-isquêmicos expostos a um ambiente enriquecido. Ratos com sete dias de idade foram divididos em quatro grupos e submetidos ou não ao procedimento cirúrgico de acordo com o grupo experimental ao qual pertenciam: controle mantido em ambiente padrão (CTAP), controle em ambiente enriquecido (CTAE), HI em ambiente padrão (HIAP) e HI em ambiente enriquecido (HIAE). Passado o período de EA (1h/dia, 6 dias/semana, 9 semanas iniciando após o desmame), os parâmetros mencionados foram avaliados nos animais. Os dados indicaram que a HI causou um prejuízo na memória e no aprendizado no teste do “OX-maze”, o qual foi revertido pelo efeito do ambiente enriquecido. A HI causou diminuição da atividade enzimática da Na+,K+-ATPase no hipocampo contralateral, assim como uma redução na imunorreatividade à sinaptofisina e nadensidade neuronal, sendo que o EA foi efetivo na recuperação da atividade da enzima Na+,K+-ATPase e dos níveis de sinaptofisina no hipocampo contralateral à lesão. As atividades de CAT e GPX não foram alteradas pela HI em nenhum dos grupos avaliados, mesmo resultado encontrado nas análises de GFAP e de padrão de arborização dendrítica. Por fim, neste estudo foi observado o importante efeito lesivo causado pela HI neonatal e o papel do EA como estratégia neuroprotetora na recuperação funcional, na atividade da Na+,K+-ATPase e na expressão de sinaptofisina. Este estudo traz avanços em busca dos mecanismos pelos quais a melhora funcional ocorre em animais HI expostos ao EA, mas pode-se verificar que não fica totalmente esclarecido como esta estratégia atua. Outros estudos são necessários para a identificação de possíveis mecanismos que atuem como mediadores da resposta funcional do EA após um evento isquêmico. / Hypoxia-ischemia (HI) is the main mortality cause in perinatal period and, in survivors, the incidence of neurological disabilities is elevated. The immature brain, highly susceptible to hypoxic-ischemic insult, is sensible to environmental stimuli, as environmental enrichment (EE). The aims of this study were to investigate: 1) behavioral performance in a new memory and learning task, the oxmaze task; 2) evaluate Na+,K+-ATPase, catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities in the hippocampus; 3) characterizes dendritic arbor in pyramidal neurons from CA1 region from hippocampus; 4) analyze alterations in hippocampal synaptophysin and GFAP immmunoreactivity and, 5) analyze neuronal density alterations in hippocampus of hypoxic-ischemic rats exposed to enriched environment. Seven-day-old rats were divided into four groups: controlmaintained in standard environment (CTSE), control submitted to EE (CTEE), HI in standard environment (HISE) and HI in EE (HIEE). Past the end of EE period (1 hour/day, 6 days/week, 9 weeks), mentioned parameters were evaluated in animals. Present results indicate learning and memory in the “OXmaze” task were impaired in HI rats and this effect was recovered after EE. On the contralateral hemisphere, HI caused a decrease in Na+,K+-ATPase activity that was recovered by EE. Results also indicate that HI damage decreases hippocampal synaptophysin immunoreactivity and neuronal density, moreover EE was effective in recovering synaptophysin levels on contralateral to the lesion hippocampus. The activities of GPx and CAT were not changed by HI in any group evaluated, some result founded on GFAP immunoreactivity and dendritic arborization characterization analysis. In conclusion, the important effect of HI lesion and the role of EE like neuroprotective strategy on functional impairment and on Na+,K+-ATPase activity and synaptophysin immunoreactivity was proven. Although this study have important advances in search of mechanisms by which the functional enhancement occurs in the animals submitted to HI and exposed to EE, it can be seen that it is not completely clear how this approach works. Further studies are needed to identify possible mechanisms that act as mediators of EE functional response after an ischemic event.

Les lésions spinales conduisent à des altérations majeures des fonctions sensorimotrices. Les récupérations fonctionnelles consécutives à ces atteintes sont très limitées, notamment en raison des capacités réduites de réparation des tissus endommagés dans le SNC. En outre, ces récupérations dépendent notamment de plusieurs processus cellulaires tels que l'activation astrogliale qui conduit à la formation de la cicatrice gliale, ou encore l'inflammation dont les cellules microgliales et les mastocytes sont les effecteurs les plus précoces. Cette inflammation est connue pour exacerber les dommages tissulaires et restreindre les possibilités de récupération. Cependant, des études récentes chez l'animal et chez l'Homme montrent que l'inflammation pourrait également avoir des effets favorisant les processus de récupération. Le but de cette thèse était de mieux comprendre les liens qui existent entre neuroinflammation, neuroplasticité et récupérations fonctionnelles après lésion spinale. L’objectif expérimental visait à examiner les réactivités microgliales, mastocytaires et astrocytaires post-lésionnelles, en parallèle avec des restaurations fonctionnelles. Dans ce contexte nous nous sommes plus particulièrement intéressés à l'influence d'une cytokine pro-inflammatoire, le Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) sur ces processus inflammatoires et la plasticité fonctionnelle après une hémisection C4-C5 chez le rat adulte. L’ensemble de nos travaux suggère que le GM-CSF pourrait agir par l’intermédiaire de plusieurs événements cellulaires et moléculaires, en favorisant des phénomènes de plasticité adaptatifs et la récupération partielle de fonctions altérées. / Spinal cord injuries are mostly of traumatic origin and result in major sensorimotor deficits. Postlesion functional recovery is limited, especially because of the reduced capacity of repairing damaged tissues. Moreover, this recovery depends specifically on several cellular processes such as astroglial activation conducting to glial scar formation, or inflammation for which microglial and mast cells are the earliest effectors. This inflammation is known to exacerbate tissue damages and restrain the capacity to recover. However, recent studies in animals and humans show that inflammation may also have beneficial aeffects on recovery processes. The studies conducted during my doctoral research were intended to better understand the links between neuroinflammation, neuroplasticity and functional recovery following spinal cord injury. We aimed at examining microglial, mast cells and astroglial reactivities after the injury, in relation with functional recovery of somatosensory and motor functions. In this context, we were particularly interested in the influence of Granulocyte Macrophage-Colony Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) on inflammatory and plasticity mechanisms after a C4-C5 hemisection in the adult rat. Our doctoral research suggests that GM-CSF could act through several cellular and molecular events promoting adaptive plasticity phenomena underlying partial recovery of impaired functions.

Entre os PRRs (receptores de reconhecimento padrão), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), tal como NOD2, são responsáveis pela detecção intracelular de muramil dipeptídeo (MDP); padrão molecular associado a patógeno (PAMP), encontrado no peptidoglicano (PGN) de praticamente todas bactérias GRAM positiva e negativa. Após o reconhecimento e estimulação por MDP, NOD2 recruta diretamente a serina-treonina quinase RIPK2, uma proteína adaptadora importante na ativação de NF?B mediada por NOD2. A expressão de NOD2 foi descrita em macrófagos e em outras células. Além disso, trabalhos anteriores indicaram que PRRs desempenham papel crucial na ativação de células gliais da medula espinal, na indução e manutenção da dor inflamatória crônica e dor neuropática. No presente estudo, avaliamos o papel de NOD2 na modulação da sensibilidade à dor, focando sua importância na ativação de células da glia da medula espinal, bem como a sua via de sinalização (RIPK2) e liberação de citocinas pró-nociceptivas, como o fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-?), interleucina-6 (IL-6) e interleucina-1 beta (IL-1?). Os resultados demonstram que camundongos selvagens tratados com MDP, apresentaram diminuição no limiar nociceptivo mecânico (pico entre 3 e 5 horas) comparado com o grupo controle (veículo), retornando ao basal após 48 horas. Além disso, camundongos NOD2-/- , RIPK2-/- , TNFR1/2-/- e IL-6 -/- tratados com MDP não diferiram o limiar nociceptivo mecânico, comparado com seus respectivos grupos controle (veículo). Entretanto, camundongos TNFR1- /- , CCR2-/- , TLR4-/- , MyD88-/- e TRIF-/- tratados com MDP, apresentaram diminuição no limiar nociceptivo mecânico similar aos camundongos selvagens tratados com MDP. Adicionalmente, o pré-tratamento de camundongos selvagens com IL-1ra, propentofilina, minociclina, fluorocitrato e SB 203580 inibiu o desenvolvimento da hipersensibilidade mecânica induzida por MDP. Estes dados sugerem que a ativação do sensor intracellular NOD2 esta presente em células da glia da medula espinal e estimula a ativação das vias de sinalização RIPK2 e p38 MAPK com subsequente produção de IL-1?, IL-6 e TNF?, por uma via de sinalização independente de TLR4, MyD88 e TRIF. Finalmente, estes mecanismos contribuem para o processo de hipersensibilidade mecânica durante a neuropatia periférica e representam uma nova abordagem para elucidar os mecanismos envolvidos na fisiopatologia da dor crônica. / Among PRRs (pattern recognition receptors), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), such as NOD2 are responsible by intracellular detection of muramyl dipeptide (MDP); pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) found in the peptidoglycan (PGN) from virtually all gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Upon recognition and stimulation by MDP, NOD2 recruits directly the receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 2 (RIPK2), an adaptor protein important in the NOD2-mediated NF?B activation. The expression of NOD2 has been described in macrophages and other cells. Moreover, previous work has indicated that PRRs play a crucial role in the activation of spinal cord glial cells, in the induction and maintenance of chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the role of NOD2 in the modulation of pain sensitivity, focusing on its importance in the activation of spinal cord glial cells, as well as its signaling pathway (RIPK2) and release of pro-nociceptive cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-?), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1?). The results demonstrate that WT mice treated with MDP showed a decrease in mechanical nociceptive threshold (peak 3 to 5 hours) compared with the control group (vehicle), returning to the base line after 48 hours. Furthermore, NOD2-/- , RIPK2-/- , TNFR1/2-/- and IL-6 -/- mice treated with MDP did not differ the mechanical nociceptive threshold compared with their respective control groups (vehicle). However, TNFR1-/- , CCR2-/- , TLR4-/- , MyD88-/- and TRIF-/- mice treated MDP, showed a decrease in mechanical nociceptive threshold similar to WT mice treated with MDP. In addition, the pretreatment of WT mice with IL-1ra, propentofylline, minocycline, fluorocitrate and SB 203580 inhibited the development of mechanical hypersensitivity induced by MDP. These data suggest that activation of the intracellular sensor NOD2 present in spinal cord glial cells stimulates the activation of RIPK2 and p38 MAPK signaling pathways and subsequent production of IL-1?, IL-6 and TNF?, in a TLR4-, MyD88- and TRIF-independent signaling pathway. Finally, these mechanisms contribute to the process of mechanical hypersensitivity during peripheral neuropathy and represent a novel approach for elucidating the mechanisms underlying pathophysiology of chronic pain.