Dans le cadre de la Western Climate Iniative, le Québec a déployé en 2012, un système de plafonnement et d’échange de droits d’émission de gaz à effet de serre (SPEDE). Il s’agit de l’un des premiers régimes de ce type en Amérique du Nord et celui-ci pourrait à terme, constituer l'un des maillons d’un marché commun du carbone à l’échelle du continent. Toutefois, le SPEDE appartient à une catégorie d’instruments économiques de protection de l’environnement encore peu connue des juristes. Il s’inscrit en effet dans la régulation économique de l’environnement et repose sur des notions tirées de la théorie économique, dont la rareté, la propriété et le marché. La thèse s’insère donc dans le dialogue entre juristes et économistes autour de la conception et de la mise en œuvre de ce type d’instrument. Afin d’explorer son architecture et de révéler les enjeux juridiques qui le traversent, nous avons eu recours à la méthode de l’analyse économique du droit. Celle-ci permet notamment de montrer les dynamiques d'incitation et d’efficacité qui sont à l'œuvre dans les règles qui encadrent le SPEDE. Elle permet également à donner un aperçu du rôle décisif joué par la formulation des règles de droit dans l’opérationnalisation des hypothèses économiques sous-jacentes à cette catégorie d’instrument. L’exploration est menée par l’entremise d’une modélisation progressive de l’échange de droits d’émission qui prend en compte les coûts de transaction. Le modèle proposé dans la thèse met ainsi en lumière, de manière générale, les points de friction qui sont susceptibles de survenir aux différentes étapes de l'échange de droits d'émission et qui peuvent faire obstacle à son efficacité économique. L’application du modèle aux règles du SPEDE a permis de contribuer à l’avancement des connaissances en donnant aux juristes un outil permettant de donner une cohérence et une intelligibilité à l’analyse des règles de l’échange. Elle a ainsi fourni une nomenclature des règles encadrant l’échange de droits d’émission. Cette nomenclature fait ressortir les stratégies de diversification de l’échange, d’institutionnalisation de ses modalités ainsi que les enjeux de la surveillance des marchés, dont celui des instruments dérivés adossés aux droits d’émission, dans un contexte de fragmentation des autorités de tutelle. / As part of the launch of the Western Climate Initiative, the province of Québec has implemented on January 1st, 2012, one of the first carbon emissions trading system in North America (CETS). Such a system could in time become part of the emerging regulated market for carbon on the continent. However, it belongs to a category of economic instruments still timidly explored in legal literature. The CETS forms part of the economic regulation of the environment and is based on concepts drawn from the economic theory such as scarcity, property and the market. The thesis aims at contributing to the dialogue between jurists and economists around the design and implementation of this type of instrument. In order to explore its architecture and uncover the legal issues at play, we applied the teachings of law and economics in order to reveal the underlying dynamics of incitation and efficiency built in the CETS regulations and highlight the pivotal role played by the formulation of legal rules in their operationalization. The exploration is conducted through a progressive modelling of the exchange of emission rights, which takes into account transaction costs. The resulting model brings to light friction points that are likely to occur at different stages of the exchange of emission rights and might negatively impact its economic efficiency. The thesis contributes to the advancement of knowledge by offering jurists a coherent and intelligible legal analysis of the rules governing the exchange of emission rights in the CETS. Thus, it provides a systematic arrangement of these rules structured around the diversification strategies of the exchange and the institutionalization of its terms. It also raises market surveillance issues, particularly of the carbon derivatives market, in a context of fragmentation of market authorities.

Countries and governments around the world have accepted the scientific argument on the prevalence and the possible effect of global warming and climate change on the environment, world economy and ultimately human life (Nhamo, 2011). Amongst all industrial corporations, the mining industry is the biggest environmental polluter due to its extractive nature and energy intensive operations. However because of its economic importance, it cannot be abandoned, instead it needs to find a win-win situation, where it continues to succeed but minimizes environmental damage. This thesis aims to examine the possible impact of clean technology on the sustainability of South African gold mining sector. Specifically, the study aims to determine the drivers behind the move towards clean technologies and methods, identify challenges and opportunities associated with this transition at Harmony Gold’s Kusasalethu mine. This was achieved through using Kusasalethu as a case study to which investigations of the effectiveness of clean technology and methods were carried out. The case study was multidimensional; exploring the effect of clean technology on energy consumption, greenhouse gas emission (GHG), water consumption, cyanide management and Kusasalethu’s financial performance. While the case study was largely qualitative it involved quantitative data analysis that had to be triangulated with other data sources and data gathering instruments to achieve legitimacy. This meant that the study had to adopt the mixed research methods. The instruments used included; key informant interviews, and document analysis, structured questionnaire and a set of open ended questions that served as interview guide. The qualitative data were analyzed by means of coding, descriptions, typologies, taxonomies and visual representations, whilst quantitative data were processed through Microsoft Excel to generate various forms of descriptive statistics. The findings indicate that resource consumption (energy, water, cyanide) depends on the mine design and gold output rate. Clean technology implementation at Kusasalethu helped the mine reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions. However scope 2 (indirect GHG emissions associated with energy consumption) is also determined by coal production technologies and methods used by coal mines. Although data on Kusasalethu water and cyanide management and related technologies was not available, the aggregate data for all Harmony Gold mines indicated higher annual water and cyanide consumption during 2010 and 2012. In terms of Kusasalethu’s financial performance and clean technology adaptation, acquisition of clean technologies increased capital expenditure temporarily. However, the positive effects of the clean technology transition and implementation minimized operational cost and increased operational profit greatly. Although adopting clean technologies calls for increased capital expenditure, this study reveals that this expenditure pays off in lower operation costs for the mine and the environment benefits through lower GHG emission. However, clean technologies are yet to impact significantly in lowering water and cyanide consumption levels as they do with energy consumption. The study concluded that clean technology and methods played a positive role on Kusasalethu’s environmental impact and financial performance by reducing energy consumption and GHG emissions. Though, more need to be done in terms of water and cyanide management. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

This report analyzes the current greenhouse gas emissions inventory for The University of Texas at Austin (UT-Austin), reviews the carbon reduction strategies being implemented at UT-Austin and other peer institutions, and offers recommendations for strategies that could reduce greenhouse gas emissions at UT-Austin in the future. / text

The well-to-wheel (WTW) environmental performance of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) is sensitive to driving patterns, which vary within and across regions. This thesis develops and applies a novel approach for estimating specific regional driving patterns. The approach employs a macroscopic traffic assignment model linked with a vehicle motion model to construct driving cycles, which is done for a wide range of driving patterns. For each driving cycle, the tank-to-wheel energy use of two PHEVs and comparable non-plug-in alternatives is estimated. These estimates are then employed within a WTW analysis to investigate implications of driving patterns on the energy use and greenhouse gas emission of PHEVs, and the WTW performance of PHEVs relative to non-plug-in alternatives for various electricity generation scenarios. The results of the WTW analysis demonstrate that driving patterns and the electricity generation supply interact to substantially impact the WTW performance of PHEVs.

The well-to-wheel (WTW) environmental performance of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) is sensitive to driving patterns, which vary within and across regions. This thesis develops and applies a novel approach for estimating specific regional driving patterns. The approach employs a macroscopic traffic assignment model linked with a vehicle motion model to construct driving cycles, which is done for a wide range of driving patterns. For each driving cycle, the tank-to-wheel energy use of two PHEVs and comparable non-plug-in alternatives is estimated. These estimates are then employed within a WTW analysis to investigate implications of driving patterns on the energy use and greenhouse gas emission of PHEVs, and the WTW performance of PHEVs relative to non-plug-in alternatives for various electricity generation scenarios. The results of the WTW analysis demonstrate that driving patterns and the electricity generation supply interact to substantially impact the WTW performance of PHEVs.

Dans le cadre de la Western Climate Iniative, le Québec a déployé en 2012, un système de plafonnement et d’échange de droits d’émission de gaz à effet de serre (SPEDE). Il s’agit de l’un des premiers régimes de ce type en Amérique du Nord et celui-ci pourrait à terme, constituer l'un des maillons d’un marché commun du carbone à l’échelle du continent. Toutefois, le SPEDE appartient à une catégorie d’instruments économiques de protection de l’environnement encore peu connue des juristes. Il s’inscrit en effet dans la régulation économique de l’environnement et repose sur des notions tirées de la théorie économique, dont la rareté, la propriété et le marché. La thèse s’insère donc dans le dialogue entre juristes et économistes autour de la conception et de la mise en œuvre de ce type d’instrument. Afin d’explorer son architecture et de révéler les enjeux juridiques qui le traversent, nous avons eu recours à la méthode de l’analyse économique du droit. Celle-ci permet notamment de montrer les dynamiques d'incitation et d’efficacité qui sont à l'œuvre dans les règles qui encadrent le SPEDE. Elle permet également à donner un aperçu du rôle décisif joué par la formulation des règles de droit dans l’opérationnalisation des hypothèses économiques sous-jacentes à cette catégorie d’instrument. L’exploration est menée par l’entremise d’une modélisation progressive de l’échange de droits d’émission qui prend en compte les coûts de transaction. Le modèle proposé dans la thèse met ainsi en lumière, de manière générale, les points de friction qui sont susceptibles de survenir aux différentes étapes de l'échange de droits d'émission et qui peuvent faire obstacle à son efficacité économique. L’application du modèle aux règles du SPEDE a permis de contribuer à l’avancement des connaissances en donnant aux juristes un outil permettant de donner une cohérence et une intelligibilité à l’analyse des règles de l’échange. Elle a ainsi fourni une nomenclature des règles encadrant l’échange de droits d’émission. Cette nomenclature fait ressortir les stratégies de diversification de l’échange, d’institutionnalisation de ses modalités ainsi que les enjeux de la surveillance des marchés, dont celui des instruments dérivés adossés aux droits d’émission, dans un contexte de fragmentation des autorités de tutelle. / As part of the launch of the Western Climate Initiative, the province of Québec has implemented on January 1st, 2012, one of the first carbon emissions trading system in North America (CETS). Such a system could in time become part of the emerging regulated market for carbon on the continent. However, it belongs to a category of economic instruments still timidly explored in legal literature. The CETS forms part of the economic regulation of the environment and is based on concepts drawn from the economic theory such as scarcity, property and the market. The thesis aims at contributing to the dialogue between jurists and economists around the design and implementation of this type of instrument. In order to explore its architecture and uncover the legal issues at play, we applied the teachings of law and economics in order to reveal the underlying dynamics of incitation and efficiency built in the CETS regulations and highlight the pivotal role played by the formulation of legal rules in their operationalization. The exploration is conducted through a progressive modelling of the exchange of emission rights, which takes into account transaction costs. The resulting model brings to light friction points that are likely to occur at different stages of the exchange of emission rights and might negatively impact its economic efficiency. The thesis contributes to the advancement of knowledge by offering jurists a coherent and intelligible legal analysis of the rules governing the exchange of emission rights in the CETS. Thus, it provides a systematic arrangement of these rules structured around the diversification strategies of the exchange and the institutionalization of its terms. It also raises market surveillance issues, particularly of the carbon derivatives market, in a context of fragmentation of market authorities.

Recent literature has recommended that life cycle assessments (LCA) of forest bioenergy supply chains consider the impact of biomass harvest on ecosystem carbon stocks as well as the net emissions arising from combustion of various forms of biofuels compared with reference fossil fuel systems. The present study evaluated the magnitude and temporal variation of ecosystem C stock changes resulting from harvest of roadside residues and unutilized whole trees for bioenergy. The Carbon Budget Model (CBM-CFS3) was applied to the Gordon Cosens Forest, in northeastern Ontario, along with the Biomass Opportunity Supply Model (BiOS-Map), for cost analysis of different types of biomass comminution. Natural gas (NG) steam and electricity, grid electricity, and coal electricity reference systems were analyzed for a pulp and paper mill. The findings showed that the forested landscape becomes a net sink for carbon following the 20th year of roadside residue harvest, compared to whole-tree harvest, where the forested landscape remained a net source of carbon over the entire 100 year rotation. The cumulative ecosystem carbon loss from whole-tree harvest was 11 times greater compared to roadside residue harvest. BiOS-Map analysis suggested that due to technical and operational limits, between 55%-59% and 16%-24% of aboveground biomass was not recovered under roadside residue and whole-tree harvest respectively. The cost of delivering roadside residues was estimated at $52.32/odt–$57.45/odt, and for whole trees $92.63/odt–$97.44/odt. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis showed break-even points of 25, 33 and 6 years for roadside residues displacing NG steam, NG electricity, and coal, respectively. No GHG reduction was achieved when forest biomass was used to displace grid electricity that is generated in Ontario. Whole-tree bioenergy resulted in no GHG reduction for NG displacement, and a break-even point of 70-86 years for coal. A net GHG reduction of 67% and 16% was realized when roadside residues and whole trees were used to displace coal, compared to 45% and 38% when roadside residues were used to displace NG steam and NG electricity, respectively. Therefore, it is recommended that bioenergy deployment strategies focus on the utilization of roadside residues, if the main goal is GHG mitigation.

Recent literature has recommended that life cycle assessments (LCA) of forest bioenergy supply chains consider the impact of biomass harvest on ecosystem carbon stocks as well as the net emissions arising from combustion of various forms of biofuels compared with reference fossil fuel systems. The present study evaluated the magnitude and temporal variation of ecosystem C stock changes resulting from harvest of roadside residues and unutilized whole trees for bioenergy. The Carbon Budget Model (CBM-CFS3) was applied to the Gordon Cosens Forest, in northeastern Ontario, along with the Biomass Opportunity Supply Model (BiOS-Map), for cost analysis of different types of biomass comminution. Natural gas (NG) steam and electricity, grid electricity, and coal electricity reference systems were analyzed for a pulp and paper mill. The findings showed that the forested landscape becomes a net sink for carbon following the 20th year of roadside residue harvest, compared to whole-tree harvest, where the forested landscape remained a net source of carbon over the entire 100 year rotation. The cumulative ecosystem carbon loss from whole-tree harvest was 11 times greater compared to roadside residue harvest. BiOS-Map analysis suggested that due to technical and operational limits, between 55%-59% and 16%-24% of aboveground biomass was not recovered under roadside residue and whole-tree harvest respectively. The cost of delivering roadside residues was estimated at $52.32/odt–$57.45/odt, and for whole trees $92.63/odt–$97.44/odt. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis showed break-even points of 25, 33 and 6 years for roadside residues displacing NG steam, NG electricity, and coal, respectively. No GHG reduction was achieved when forest biomass was used to displace grid electricity that is generated in Ontario. Whole-tree bioenergy resulted in no GHG reduction for NG displacement, and a break-even point of 70-86 years for coal. A net GHG reduction of 67% and 16% was realized when roadside residues and whole trees were used to displace coal, compared to 45% and 38% when roadside residues were used to displace NG steam and NG electricity, respectively. Therefore, it is recommended that bioenergy deployment strategies focus on the utilization of roadside residues, if the main goal is GHG mitigation.

La contribution des changements d’usage des sols aux émissions de gaz à effet de serre d’origine anthropique est estimée à 17% pour la décennie 2000, en grande partie liée à la déforestation. L’un des facteurs principaux de ces changements est l’expansion des terres agricoles pour les besoins locaux de développement, mais également sous l’effet des exportations stimulées par la mondialisation. Pour cette raison, des préoccupations nouvelles surgissent quant aux effets des politiques sur l’usage des sols par le biais des marchés internationaux. Ce travail présente trois illustrations concrètes où ces effets peuvent être d’ampleur conséquente : i) l’intensification de l’agriculture dans les pays en voie de développement, ii) les accords commerciaux, et iii) les politiques d’agrocarburants. Les résultats montrent que pour chacune de ces politiques, les réponses des marchés sont susceptibles de jouer un rôle déterminant dans le bilan des gaz à effet de serre. L’atténuation du changement climatique par l’intensification des cultures conduit à des réductions d’émissions, mais l’effet rebond de la demande pourrait annuler une part substantielle des bénéfices attendus sur les surfaces de terres cultivées. L’exemple d’un possible accord entre l’Union européenne et le Mercosur montre les effets négatifs que peut induire la libéralisation de certains produits agricoles, si des mesures d’accompagnement adéquates ne sont pas mises en place. Enfin, l’effet des changements indirects d’affectation des sols est susceptible d’effacer une part substantielle des réductions d’émissions alléguées aux agrocarburants. Les réponses de l’affectation des sols aux différentes politiques dépendent néanmoins de nombreux paramètres comportementaux, et il est difficile d’en fournir une estimation chiffrée précise. Plusieurs approches de modélisation sont utilisées ici pour quantifier ces effets et explorer les intervalles de confiance découlant des estimations actuelles de la littérature économétrique. La prise en compte de cette externalité dans l’évaluation des politiques publiques nécessite des approches nouvelles intégrant mieux les différents niveaux d’incertitude sur ces effets. / Land use change is estimated to have generated 17% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in the 2000s, a large part coming from deforestation. The main driver of these emissions is expansion of agricultural activities, for the need of local development in tropical regions. However, they have also been caused by the dynamics of globalisation which has stimulated agricultural trade flows. Thus, today, there are new concerns with respect to how agricultural policies are influencing land use changes in other parts of the world through international market responses. In this work I consider three concrete illustrations of where these effects can be of significant magnitude: i) agriculture intensification in developing countries, ii) trade agreements, and iii) biofuel policies. I find that for each of these policies, market responses are likely to play a significant role in the final greenhouse gas emission balance. Mitigation of emissions through agricultural intensification could have quite beneficial outcomes, but the rebound effect on the demand side would offset a large part of greenhouse gas emission savings attributable to the land sparing effect. With the example of a possible EU-MERCOSUR trade agreement, I also show the adverse effect of liberalising certain specific agricultural products closely connected to land use change dynamics without adequate accompanying measures. Last, the indirect land use change effect of biofuels is likely to offset a large part of their alleged GHG emission savings. Land use change responses depend on many behavioural parameters, however, and providing precise estimates constitutes a challenge. I use different modelling approaches to quantify their magnitude and extensively explore the level of confidence on the basis of current state of econometric findings.New approaches should be elaborated to take account of this externality in public policy assessments, together with an appropriate consideration of the uncertainty ranges associated with these effects.

Energy efficiency within the transport sector - A case study on the vehicle fleet of a companyIsak EklövThe environmental objective of zero net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2045 asdecided by the Swedish parliament establishes a framework for a standard thatimplies a demand for considerable changes within many sectors at both technical and political level. The need for long term efficiency solutions with respect tosustainability to be able to reach this goal is great and one step towards this couldpotentially be an adaption to an increased amount of vehicles with alternative fuelsin the vehicle fleet of Sweden. This thesis examined the potential for companiesto reduce their life-cycle emissions of greenhouse gases as well as the total cost ofownership (TCO) for their vehicles by changing the composition of their vehiclefleet.The project started with a literature review of a general character where data forlife-cycle emissions of greenhouse gases as well as TCO for different vehicle typeswas examined and collected. Then the life-cycle emissions of greenhouse gases andTCO were calculated for the different vehicle types through a case study on thevehicle fleet of a company. Finally a programming script was developed to increasethe efficiency of the process which was then used to create scenarios with differentcompositions of the vehicle fleet. A sensitivity analysis was also carried out to evaluate the robustness of the life cycle calculations where the parameters individuallywere altered and the effect on the final result was examined.The result of the case study showed that alternative fueled vehicles are expected tolead to lower life-cycle emissions of greenhouse gases compared to the conventionalalternatives for all vehicle types where alternative fuels are commercially available.The only exception for this was the electric fringe benefit vehicle with a 100 kWhbattery which was expected to lead to higher life-cycle emissions than its fossilalternatives. The result of the cost analysis showed a similar pattern but in thiscase the service vehicle fueled with gas was expected to lead to a higher value ofTCO than its fossil alternatives. The sensitivity analysis for life-cycle emissionsof greenhouse gases showed that production of lithium-ion batteries, vehicle base production and tailpipe emissions were the most contributing parameters forfringe benefit vehicles. The purchase cost was found to be the most contributingparameter for TCO.The result of the scenario analysis showed that there is a potential to decreaseiiilife-cycle emissions of greenhouse gases by 22 % of the total life-cycle emissionsfor the vehicle fleet according to the Base-case scenario. The potential to decreaseTCO was found to be 1,1 %. The other scenarios showed a potential decrease forlife-cycle emissions of 37 % and a cost decrease of 7 % individually.Key words: greenhouse gas emissions, alternative fuels, electric vehicles, totalcost of ownership, life cycle assessment, sustainable vehicle fleet