<p>Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå : Umeå universitet, 1992, härtill 8 uppsatser</p> / digitalisering@umu

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En raison des forts coûts en temps et en énergie associés à chaque reproduction, les femelles ne sont généralement pas aussi disponibles que les mâles pour se reproduire. Les mâles entrent donc souvent en compétition pour accéder aux femelles disponibles. Ceci conduit à une forte sélection sexuelle chez les mâles. Un des exemples les plus frappants de compétition entre mâles peut être observé chez certaines espèces de crustacés chez qui les femelles ne sont sexuellement réceptives que pour un temps très limité. Les mâles ont donc évolué une stratégie de gardiennage précopulatoire grâce à laquelle ils monopolisent une femelle plusieurs jours avant qu’elle ne devienne réceptive. Ce comportement mâle est lui-même coûteux en temps et en énergie. En conséquence, il a été suggéré que les mâles devraient devenir sélectifs envers les femelles du fait du fort investissement que chaque reproduction représente pour eux. A l’aide d’un modèle mathématique, nous prédisons que les mâles effectuant de longs gardiennages précopulatoires devraient préférer s’apparier avec les grandes femelles plus fécondes. Toutefois, cette sélectivité devrait rester faible du fait de la forte compétition pour accéder aux femelles libres. Nous suggérons plutôt que les mâles devraient chercher à s’apparier avec des femelles de bonne qualité après s’être initialement apparié avec une femelle. Quand les mâles en couple rencontrent une femelle libre de meilleure qualité que leur propre femelle, ils devraient quitter leur femelle pour s’accoupler avec la nouvelle femelle. Contrairement à cette prédiction, nos expériences ont montré que les mâles en couple d’un crustacé amphipode Gammarus pulex ne changeaient pas systématiquement de femelle quand nous leurs proposions une femelle de meilleure qualité que leur propre femelle. Ils décidaient de changer de partenaire uniquement quand leur femelle était de mauvaise qualité, indépendamment de la qualité de la nouvelle femelle libre. D’autres expériences sont nécessaires pour comprendre le caractère adaptatif de ce comportement de changement de partenaire, seulement basé sur une partie de l’information disponible. Ces deux études soulignent la difficulté d’inférer des patrons de reproduction uniquement à partir des préférences individuelles. Dans la première étude, les mâles étaient contraints par la compétition pour accéder aux femelles libres. Dans la seconde, le processus de prise de décision des mâles conduisait à un comportement de choix apparemment sous-optimal. Ces contraintes n’ont que rarement été prises en compte malgré leur grande importance lorsqu’il s’agit de comprendre les causes comportementales d’un patron de reproduction très répandus chez les crustacés à gardiennage précopulatoire : l’homogamie pour la taille. Il a principalement été suggéré que ce patron de reproduction était issu d’une préférence mâle pour les grandes femelles associée à un avantage des grands mâles pour accéder aux femelles. Cette hypothèse n’a malgré tout reçu que peu de support empirique. A l’aide d’un modèle par simulation individu centrée, nous avons donc testé l’hypothèse selon laquelle une préférence mâle pour la distance à la mue des femelles serait à l’origine de l’homogamie pour la taille chez les crustacés à gardiennage précopulatoire. Quand les mâles préfèrent s’apparier avec des femelles qui sont strictement plus proches de la mue qu’eux, les couples formaient un patron d’homogamie pour la taille. Puisque plusieurs préférences différentes peuvent conduire à un même patron de reproduction, ce résultat souligne l’importance de considérer le processus complet de mise en couple pour étudier le lien entre les préférences individuelles et les patrons de reproduction. Les stratégies de femelles peuvent aussi jouer un rôle important dans les processus de mise en couple. Contrairement aux mâles, les femelles ont été décrites comme préférant les gardiennages courts du fait des coûts associés à la mise en couple. / Because of strong costs associated with each mating event, females are usually not as available for reproduction as males at any given time. Males are therefore in competition with each other for access to receptive females, hence leading to strong sexual selection. One textbook case of such a mating system occurs in moulting crustaceans where females can only be fertilized during a short period following their moult. This has favoured the evolution male strategies to monopolize females before their period of receptivity. Such a precopulatory mate guarding is widespread among many taxa and represents one of the most striking example of males’ competitive traits favoured by sexual selection. However, recent investigations have suggested that because males’ sexually selected traits often involve opportunity or mortality costs, males should become choosy towards females. Using a theoretical approach, we showed that males performing long lasting mate guarding should choose larger, more fecund females. However, under sequential encounter of potential mates, competition for female access decreases male choosiness before entering in precopula. We rather suggest that males should become choosy after initial pairing with a female. When encountering an unpaired female of better quality than their current female, paired males should switch partners. Contrary to our expectations, even under simultaneous encounters of two females, males did not seem to assess their relative quality. Instead they decided to change partner when their own female was of low absolute quality. This led to several cases where males forewent the possibility of increasing their fitness. Further investigations are needed to understand the adaptive significance of using only a subset of information in decision making. These two cases highlight the difficulty of inferring mating patterns from mating preferences only. In the first case, male preference was constrained by competition for access to females while in the second one, sampling processes led to apparent suboptimal mate choices. These potential constraints on decision making have rarely been acknowledge in precopulatory mate guarding crustaceans in spite of their major importance when inferring the causes of a well-known pairing pattern occurring in these species: size-assortative pairing. Size assortment among pairs has mainly been considered to come from a male directional preference for larger females associated with a large male advantage in getting access to preferred females. However, this hypothesis has received contrasted empirical support and little is known about the underlying pairing process causing size-assortative pairing. We investigated theoretically the possibility that a state-dependent male mating preference could account for size-assortative pairing. When males chose females which were exclusively closer to moult than them, assortative pairing by size arose under strong male-male competition. Because several preferences can account for a given pattern, this result emphasises the importance of considering the whole pairing process when studying the link between preferences and mate choice. Female strategies may also be of great importance during the pairing process. Contrary to males, females have been suggested to prefer short precopulatory mate guarding due to costs associated with pairing. Such a sexual conflict over guarding duration may have major effects on co-evolutionary dynamics between males and females traits. Proving its occurrence is yet challenging because empirical studies often lack a full economical survey of costs and benefits for females associated with male traits. Females benefits associated with long lasting precopulatory mate guarding have particularly been overlooked in previous studies. Here, we proposed several potential benefits for females and discuss their influence on sexual conflict over guarding duration.

La folie, dans les archives de la justice royale aux XIVe et XVe siècles, s’accompagne de deux effets de droit : l’incapacité dans les affaires civiles et l’irresponsabilité dans la sphère pénale. La démence (furor) est définie, de manière sommaire, comme une maladie relevant des lois de la nature, qui prive la personne de sa capacité à posséder une intention valable. Sur la base de ce canevas juridique, les descriptions de comportements fous sont assez diverses, car elles s’adaptent aux termes de chaque litige. L’argument de folie sert, en particulier, à excuser un crime, à faire annuler un contrat ou un testament, ou encore à empêcher un proche parent de dissiper les biens du lignage, en obtenant son interdiction et/ou sa mise en curatelle. Le pouvoir qui s’exerce sur l’individu déclaré fou est d’abord celui de la parentèle, qui l’empêche d’accéder au statut normal de l’adulte en raison de son désordre mental et qui, s’il est dangereux, le garde lié à domicile. Des usages coutumiers règlementent ces situations, mais le recours aux sentences des tribunaux royaux et aux règles du droit savant se développe au cours de la période. Le roi ne légifère pas sur ces affaires familiales, laissant certains acteurs intermédiaires, notamment urbains, réclamer la garde de ces sujets vulnérables. Ses gens de justice veillent néanmoins à rendre incontournable le recours à sa juridiction souveraine. / In the archives of the royal justice system of the 14th and 15th centuries, madness was distinguished by two distinct judicial attributes: full incapacity in civil proceedings and the exception from penal responsibility in judicial matters. Dementia (furor) was summarily defined as an illness, stemming from the laws of nature, which deprived the subject of his ability to express any valid intent. Within this legal framework, whether or not conduct was deemed mad depended in large part on the specific circumstances of each law suit. The insanity plea could be used, for example, to acquit a crime, to nullify a contract or a testament as well as to prevent a relative from squandering the possessions of the family line by either having him barred and/or placed under guardianship. Those who were regarded as insane found themselves placed, primarily, under the authority of their relatives who thus deprived them of the ordinary privileges associated to adulthood and, should they prove dangerous, kept them at home. If customary law was generally used to arbitrate these situations, more and more appeals to the royal courts and to the opinions of legal scholars were made during this period. Even if the king did not pass judgment on such family matters, he did deputize certain mid-level actors, such as the burghers, to take these vulnerable subjects in their custody. In turn, these lawmen remained particularly attentive to appeal systematically to his sovereign authority.

The regulation of the private security industry has been an issue of debate for a number of years in South Africa, as well as in the rest of the world. The debate mainly centers around issues such as the need for regulation in this Industry and the objectives of regulation. This thesis argues that regulation is of utmost importance in this Industry and furthermore, that the objective ofregulation should be to set standards in the Industry. If this is the case, the protection of the public interest will be a natural result of regulating the standards. In addition, this thesis argues for the inclusion of the private investigator into the scope of regulation and suggests that this sector should ultimately be regulated through the means of separate legislation. This thesis furthermore provides two models for the regulation of the private security industry in South Africa. These models are described as the Semi-Integrated Wide Model (SIWM) and the Fully Integrated Wide Model (FIWM). These two models provide Government with the option of regulating the Industry without alienating the latter. Government will still have the ultimate responsibility for regulation, but will allow the Industry to be central in setting standards and requirements. In this way, the Industry will not regulate itself and Government will have the ultimate responsibility of protecting the interests of the public and the State / Police Practice / D. litt. et. Phil. (Police Science)

The regulation of the private security industry has been an issue of debate for a number of years in South Africa, as well as in the rest of the world. The debate mainly centers around issues such as the need for regulation in this Industry and the objectives of regulation. This thesis argues that regulation is of utmost importance in this Industry and furthermore, that the objective ofregulation should be to set standards in the Industry. If this is the case, the protection of the public interest will be a natural result of regulating the standards. In addition, this thesis argues for the inclusion of the private investigator into the scope of regulation and suggests that this sector should ultimately be regulated through the means of separate legislation. This thesis furthermore provides two models for the regulation of the private security industry in South Africa. These models are described as the Semi-Integrated Wide Model (SIWM) and the Fully Integrated Wide Model (FIWM). These two models provide Government with the option of regulating the Industry without alienating the latter. Government will still have the ultimate responsibility for regulation, but will allow the Industry to be central in setting standards and requirements. In this way, the Industry will not regulate itself and Government will have the ultimate responsibility of protecting the interests of the public and the State / Police Practice / D. litt. et. Phil. (Police Science)

Bibliography: leaves 441-459 / The shepherd metaphor is a prominent and significant one in the Old Testament. However, it has shifted from an agrarian context, of shepherd and sheep in the literal sense, to a socio-political context, of rulers and people in the political sense: a king is a shepherd to the people. A careful review of the given metaphor raises the question whether the metaphor should be the basis of the pastoral and leadership models that are derived from the image of the shepherd, and whether such models can be enriched by the analysis of the said metaphor as applied to the implementation of the shepherding responsibility described in the Old Testament. This research aims to examine various pastoral and leadership models and their use of the shepherd metaphor in the light of the significance of the said metaphor in the Old Testament. It utilises rhetorical criticism in consultation with metaphorical theory to examine the given metaphor used in the models of pastoral and leadership roles and their relationship with the shepherd metaphor in the New Testament. The objective is threefold: (1) exploring the use of the shepherd metaphor in the Old Testament; (2) examining the use of the shepherd metaphor in pastoral and leadership models, which could include pointing out that some of these models rely heavily on their understanding of New Testament uses of this metaphor; and (3) comparing the Old Testament and pastoral/leadership models’ uses of the shepherd metaphor and drawing conclusions based on this comparison. To achieve that end, the discussion also includes the ancient Near Eastern literature and deuterocanonical texts. The thesis shows that a careful analysis of the uses of the shepherd metaphor in the Old Testament could enrich the literature on Christian leadership as well as pastoral models that use this metaphor as their point of departure. / Old Testament and Ancient Near Eastern Studies / D. Phil. (Old Testament)

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