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Epithelial cells are the first line of defense against invading pathogens and external threats in the environment. Keratinocytes, often not perceived of as immune cells, release cytokines in response to infection or injury to signal danger to neighboring cells and recruit effector leukocytes to prevent further damage to the host. IL-1 and IL-36 cytokines are a group of closely related proteins that share similarities in structure and function and have been shown to play key roles in inflammatory responses of epithelial tissues. While IL-1, consisting of IL-1α and IL-1β, have been widely studied and recognized as pinnacle cytokines in a variety of inflammatory responses, relatively little is understood about IL-36 cytokines since their discovery more than 15 years ago, and how they differ from their better-known IL-1 relatives. IL-36 cytokines, consisting of IL-36α, IL-36β, and IL-36γ, signal through the same receptor, IL-36R, which is expressed most abundantly on epithelial cells. IL-36 proteins garnered attention when it was discovered that a missense mutation in the gene encoding the naturally occurring receptor antagonist, IL-36Ra, was associated with the deadly form of psoriasis, generalized pustular psoriasis (GPP). This disease is characterized by episodic flares of keratinocyte hyperproliferation leading to red scaly lesions all over the body, excessive neutrophil recruitment to the epidermis resulting in pustule formation, and severe fever. Our data presented here demonstrate that IL-36α, but not IL-36β or IL-36γ is critical for the psoriatic phenotype, including epidermal thickening and neutrophil recruitment, generated during a murine model of psoriasis induced by the drug Imiquimod. Furthermore, IL-36α was found to induce IL-1α expression and vice versa through a signaling feedback loop which perpetuated disease. These data provide insight into mechanisms whereby IL-36 signaling can lead to excessive inflammatory effects in patients with pre-existing regulation deficiencies, which can lead to acute flares of disease. Beyond their association with disease, IL-1 has been shown to contribute to anti-bacterial and anti-viral responses of the immune system by upregulating inflammatory signals and chemoattractants. Herpes Simplex Virus-1 (HSV-1) is a human pathogen that has developed several strategies to manipulate elements of the immune system to avoid detection by the host. One such mechanism is the prevention of activation and release of IL-1β from infected cells thereby blocking its pro-inflammatory responses. Our data show that keratinocytes infected with HSV-1 actively release IL-1α to alert danger to neighboring cells to circumvent this blockage of IL-1β signaling. This release of IL-1α initiates recruitment of leukocytes to early HSV-1 microinfection sites resulting in increased protection against disease, as evident by the increased mortality rate of mice deficient in the IL-1 receptor, IL-1R1. This study, for the first time in vivo, demonstrates the ability of IL-1α to act as an alarmin to initiate an immune response to combat infection. The role of IL-36 cytokines during viral infections has been less defined than that of IL-1. Several studies have shown the upregulation of IL-36 expression during viral infections in epithelial tissues, such as HSV-1 and Influenza, yet a direct link has not been established between these proteins and anti-viral responses. Our research presented within this thesis show that IL-36β, but not IL-36α nor IL-36γ, provides protection against the lethal outcome of cutaneous HSV-1 infection, as demonstrated by IL-36β knockout mice dying earlier and more often than wild type mice. Surprisingly, while previous reports have found IL-36 cytokines to be capable of activating the adaptive immune system, our results found no significant differences in development of HSV-1 specific antibodies or CD8+ T cell development between wild type and IL-36β knockout mice. Furthermore, we found no significant differences in viral copy numbers at infection sites between the two groups. Although our data show that IL-36β clearly plays a critical role in controlling the outcome of HSV-1 infection, further studies are necessary to define the mechanisms behind this protection. The final section of this thesis focuses on the endogenous nature of IL-36 cytokines, specifically IL-36γ, and their potential processing. IL-36 cytokines were originally believed to be synthesized as full-length fully active proteins; however, large concentrations of the recombinant proteins were required to elicit cellular responses in vitro. Since then, studies have shown that IL-36 cytokines gained up to 1000-fold increases in reactivity following processing at very specific N-terminal locations of each individual cytokine, however this processing has never been shown to occur in vivo. These studies were recently expanded when neutrophil proteases were found to be responsible for processing of these proteins in vitro. Data presented here show, for the first time, that IL-36γ may be endogenously processed by neutrophils in wounded murine skin in vivo, yet, the amino acid processing site appears to be different from that predicted. Although further studies are required to fully characterize the nature of this processing, these data provide valuable insight into the natural mechanisms involved in the potential activation of these cytokines. Taken together, the research presented within this thesis sheds light on the mechanisms whereby IL-1 and IL-36 cytokines enhance immunological defenses against potential threats, and yet, can contribute to disease if unregulated. Furthermore, these studies demonstrate the evolutionary advantage of producing multiple cytokines that appear to have redundant roles within the body, yet can provide multiple levels of protection to the host. This knowledge contributes to our overall understanding of these proteins and their contribution to immunological systems within the body. / Microbiology and Immunology

Herpes simplex virus protein VP16 activates immediate-early (IE) viral gene expression upon infection. VP16-mediated transactivation depends on formation of a multi protein complex with cellular factors on a cis-acting TAATGARA T sequence present in the IE promoters. The potent acidic activation domain, contained within the carboxyl terminus of VP16, is dispensable for the complex formation. The amino terminal part of VP16, which is inert in transactivation in mammalian cells, is sufficient for selective interactions with cellular factors, one of which has been identified as the ubiquitous transcription factor Oct-1. The yeast two-hybrid system was utilized to isolate the cellular factor(s) necessary in addition to Oct-1 for VP16 induced complex formation. This system, designed to directly clone proteins interacting with a given protein of interest, employs the yeast transcriptional activator GAL4. An interaction between VP16 and the cellular factor(s), fused to GAL4 DNA binding and activation domain, respectively, reconstitutes a hybrid transactivator that stimulates expression of a reporter lacZ gene in yeast. Thus, (beta)-galactosidase activity serves as a positive signal for protein-protein interaction. As a prelude of using this method for isolation of VP16-interacting cellular proteins, the system was tested with HSV-1 protein vhs, known to bind to VP16 in vitro. The obtained data demonstrated an interaction between VP16 and vhs in the two-hybrid system and deletion analysis revealed that VP16 sequence contained within the first 369 amino acids is required for binding to vhs. Thus, VP16 residues necessary for interaction with vhs in vivo coincide with these identified previously for VP16-vhs complex formation in vitro. VP16 fused to the GAL4 DNA binding domain activated expression of the reporter lacZ gene in yeast, despite the absence of its acidic activation domain. Deletion analysis showed that the amino terminal 369 residues of VP16 were sufficient for transactivation in yeast. Similar GAL4-VP16 derivatives were inactive in mammalian cells as measured by transient transfection assays. Thus, unlike in yeast, VP16 lacking the acidic activation domain is deficient in transactivation in mammalian cells even if it is directly bound to a promoter. VP16 sequences required for complex formation with vhs overlaps with those implicated in interaction with the mammalian factors, indicating that this region is involved in protein-protein interactions with both cellular and viral factors. Consistent with this, VP16 interaction with a yeast factor supplying an activation domain in trans would explain VP16-dependent transactivation in the absence of its acidic activation domain. Alternatively, a yeast specific activation domain might be present in the amino terminal part of VP16. / Thesis / Master of Science (MS)

O presente projeto propõe a avaliação de respostas imunológicas induzidas por uma vacina de DNA bivalente para o controle de infecções por HIV e HSV. A vacina genética codifica a proteína gD do vírus HSV-1 geneticamente fusionada à proteína Gag (p24) do HIV, rica em epítopos reconhecidos por células T CD8+. A vacina de DNA pRE4p24 codifica a proteína p24 inserida em região próxima à porção C-terminal da proteína gD-1, permitindo que a proteína recombinante seja expressa na superfície da célula transfectada. A localização da proteína recombinante foi confirmada na superfície das células HEK-293T transfectadas por ensaios de imunofluorescência. Camundongos imunizados com a vacina foram capazes de gerar respostas de anticorpos específicos após três doses administradas pelas vias intramuscular (i.m.), intradérmica com seringa (i.d.) ou intradérmico por biobalística (gg). Foram analisadas as respostas imunológicas mediadas por linfócitos T CD8+ p24-específicas e, em função dos resultados obtidos, sendo a via i.m. escolhida como a mais promissora para os ensaios subsequentes. Na tentativa de aumentar a imunogenicidade da vacina, particularmente, para respostas celulares, foi avaliado o efeito da co-administração da formulação vacinal com outros plasmídeos que expressam citocinas (pIL-2, pIL-12 ou pGM-CSF), o teste de um vetor vacinal baseado no plasmídeo multicópia pVAX (pgDp24) e o emprego de um gene sintético para promover o aumento da expressão da proteína gD em células de mamíferos (pgDhp24). Por fim, desenvolvemos um modelo murino para a avaliação funcional de respostas citotóxicas antígeno-específicas a partir de uma linhagem tumoral capaz de expressar a proteína p24 do HIV. Camundongos Balb/c imunizados com o pgDp24 apresentaram um retardo no crescimento tumoral em relação aos animais não imunizados além de proteção parcial a desafios letais com HSV-1. / The present thesis aims to evaluate the immunological responses induced by a bivalent DNA vaccine to the control HIV and HSV infectious. This genetic vaccine codes the gD protein from the HSV-1 virus envelope genetically fused with HIV Gag (p24) protein, which has various epitopes recognized by human and murine T CD8+ cells. The DNA vaccine, named pRE4p24, codes for p24 protein, inserted close to the C-terminal region of gD-1 protein, leading to the expression of the recombinant protein on the surface of the transfected cells. The location of the recombinant protein was confirmed with transfected HEK-293 cellsby immunofluorescence assays. Mice immunized with the vaccine generated antigen-specific antibody responses after three doses administered intramuscularly (i.m), intradermally with a syringe (i.d) or intradermally by gene gun (bioballistic) (gg). The immunological responses mediated by specific-T CD8+ p24 lymphocytes were evaluated and, according to the data obtained, the i.m administration was chosen for the next assays. Aiming the improvement of the vaccine immunogenicity, particularly for cellular responses, the effect of co-administration with other plasmids was assessed with: plasmids that express cytokines (pIL-2, pIL-12 or pGM-CSF); a vaccine vector based on pVAX (pgDp24); and a vector encoding a synthetic gene capable to increase the expression of gD protein in mammalian cells (pgDhp24). Finally, we developed a murine model for the functional evaluation of antigen-specific cytotoxic responses using a tumor cell line which expresses the p24 protein. Balb/c mice, immunized with pgDp24 had a reduced tumor growth when compared to non-immunized mice. In addition, vaccinated mice showed partial protection to a lethal challenge with HSV-1.

O câncer cervical é considerado um grande problema de saúde pública e um dos maiores causadores de mortes relacionadas a tumores em mulheres. O principal objetivo desta tese foi aumentar a eficácia antitumoral terapêutica da proteína gDE7 por meio da associação de adjuvantes vacinais em formulações testadas em condições experimentais com a linhagem celular tumoral TC-1. A proteína gDE7 foi produzida a partir de uma linhagem de E. coli e associada a diferentes adjuvantes. A proteína gDE7 coadministrada ao poly(I:C) conferiu proteção antitumoral completa aos camundongos previamente desafiados e induziu ativação de linfócitos T CD8+ E7-específicos polifuncionais, citotóxicos e de fenótipo de memória efetora/efetor. Foi demonstrado que a proteína gDE7 ativa de forma específica a subpopulação de células dendríticas especializada na apresentação cruzada de antígenos para linfócitos T CD8+, tanto em camundongos como em seres humanos. Esses resultados abrem perspectivas para o emprego da proteína gD como plataforma vacinal para o controle de tumores induzidos pelo HPV-16. / Cervical cancer is considered a major public health problem and one of the leading causes of cancer death in women. The main goal of this thesis was the improvement of a therapeutic antitumor vaccine based on gDE7 protein in formulations admixed with adjuvants under experimental conditions with the tumor cell line TC-1. The gDE7 protein was expressed and purified from E. coli, and then tested in combination with different vaccine adjuvants. The gDE7 protein admixed with poly(I:C) conferred complete therapeutic antitumor protection to mice previously challenged with TC-1 cells and induced polyfunctional, cytotoxic E7-specific CD8+ T cells with effector/effector memory phenotype. It was also demonstrated that the gDE7 protein activated a specialized dendritic cell subset involved in specific antigen cross-presentation to CD8+ T cells, both in mice and humans. These results open perspectives for the use of the gD protein use as a vaccine platform for the control of HPV-16-induced tumors.

Submitted by Maike Costa (maiksebas@gmail.com) on 2016-05-10T13:37:38Z No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivo total.pdf: 3109388 bytes, checksum: 647810f9fb25d144a271d5f256240096 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-05-10T13:37:38Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivo total.pdf: 3109388 bytes, checksum: 647810f9fb25d144a271d5f256240096 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-08-27 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / A spectrophotometer for absorption measurements / emission, simple, portable and as partially partial dual mode for quantitative experiments was constructed using cheap and available materials is proposed in this paper. The instrument, here called SpectroPhone consists of modules made of MDF, one DVD as a diffraction grating media, two mini white incandescent lamps as radiation source and a Smartphone to acquire images and perform data processing, such as detector. The pixels of a region produced in a spectral images provide qualitative and quantitative information after the application of the concepts and HSV color model RGB, respectively. A simple algorithm based on HSV was developed for the conversion of the hue values (H) in their corresponding λ. Its analytical performance was assessed by quantitative analysis based on analytical curves, specimens of which have been validated by analysis of variance (ANOVA). The SpectroPhone was applied to the determination of Fe2+ in the absorption mode in pharmaceutical samples, and Na+, in emission mode and in natural saline water. For comparison purposes, a commercial spectrophotometer for absorption mode and a photometer for commercial flame emission mode were used to construct the calibration curves of the reference instrument. Applying the paired t test at 95% confidence for the results of concentrations obtained with the instruments, it is observed that there was no statistically significant difference showing high precision and accuracy. SpectroPhone can be considered a good alternative to instrumental spectrometric measurements, not just limited to educational and academic purposes. / Um espectrofotômetro para medidas de absorção/emissão, simples, parciamente portátil e modo duplo parcial para experimentos quantitativos foi construído usando materiais baratos e disponíveis é proposto neste trabalho. O instrumento, aqui chamado de SpectroPhone é composto por módulos confeccionados em MDF, uma mídia de DVD como rede de difração, duas mini lâmpadas incadescentes branca como fonte de radiação e um Smartphone para adquirir imagens e realizar tratamento de dados, como detector. Os pixels de uma região produzida em uma imagens digital fornecem informações qualitativas e quantitativas após a aplicações do HSV e conceitos do modelo de cor RGB, respectivamente. Um simples algoritmo baseado em HSV foi desenvolvido para a conversão dos valores do matiz (H) em seu λ correspondentes. Seu desempenho analítico foi avaliado por meio de análises quantitativas baseados em curvas analíticas, cujos modelos foram validados por meio da análise de variância (ANOVA). O SpectroPhone foi aplicado na determinação de Fe2+ no modo de absorção em amostras farmacêuticas, e Na+, no modo de emissão em soro fisiológico e em água naturais. Para fins de comparação, um espectrofotômetro comercial para o modo de absorção e um fotômetro em chama comercial para o modo de emissão foram empregados para construir as curvas analíticas do instrumento de referência. Aplicando o teste t pareado ao nível de 95% de confiança para os resultados de concentrações obtidas com os instrumentos, observa-se que não houve diferença estatisticamente significativa apresentando alta precisão e exatidão. O SpectroPhone pode ser considerado uma boa alternativa instrumental para medições espectrométricas, não apenas limitada para fins didáticos e acadêmicos.

Submitted by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2017-11-27T10:31:50Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Rachel de Paula Santos Ribeiro - 2017.pdf: 12713551 bytes, checksum: c361c2531a99b684a3f4f3633f77b96c (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2017-11-27T10:32:23Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Rachel de Paula Santos Ribeiro - 2017.pdf: 12713551 bytes, checksum: c361c2531a99b684a3f4f3633f77b96c (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-11-27T10:32:24Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Rachel de Paula Santos Ribeiro - 2017.pdf: 12713551 bytes, checksum: c361c2531a99b684a3f4f3633f77b96c (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-10-26 / Autoimmune diseases can be triggered by viruses, bacteria and parasites. However, the participation of these infectious agents in the etiology of vitiligo, it is a current research topic. In this study, the serum of 51 participants with vitiligo and 51 control subjects was analyzed for the presence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii (T.gondii) IgG, anti-herpes simplex (HSV) 1/2 IgG, anti-cytomegalovirus (CMV) IgG and anti-hepatitis C (HCV) IgG. / As doenças automimunes podem ser desencadeadas por vírus, bactérias ou parasitas. E o envolvimento destes agentes infecciosos na etiologia do vitiligo, é tema de intensa investigação atual. Neste estudo, o soro de 51 participantes com vitiligo e de 51 pessoas controle pareados por sexo e idade foi analisado para presença de imunoglobulinas IgG anti- Toxoplasma gondii (T.gondii), anti-herpes simples (HSV) 1/2, anti citomegalovírus (CMV) e anti-hepatite C (HCV).

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Propolis is a natural compound and has been highlighted for its antioxidant, antiinflammatory and antiviral properties. The purpose of this study was to investigate if brown hydroalcoholic propolis extract (HPE) protects against vaginal lesions caused by herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) in female BALB/c mice. The treatment was divided in 5 days of pre-treatment with HPE [50 mg/kg, once a day, intragastric (i.g.)], HSV-2 infection [10 ml of a solution 1x102 plaque-forming unit (PFU/ml 1 HSV-2), intravaginal inoculation at day 6] and post-treatment with HPE (50 mg/kg) for 5 days more. At day 11, in vivo (score of lesions) and ex vivo analysis [haematological and histological evaluation; superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activities; reactive species (RS), tyrosine nitration, non-protein thiols (NPSH) and ascorbic acid (AA) levels] were carried out. HPE treatment reduced extravaginal lesions and the histological damage caused by HSV-2 infection in vaginal tissues of animals. HPE was able to decrease RS, tyrosine nitration, AA levels and MPO activity. Also, it protected against the inhibition of CAT activity in vaginal tissues of mice. HPE promoted protective effect on HSV-2 infected animals by acting on inflammatory and oxidative processes, and this effect probably is due its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. / O própolis é um composto natural e se destaca por suas propriedades antioxidante, antiinflamatória e antiviral. O objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar se o extrato hidroalcoólico de própolis marrom (EHP) tem efeito protetor frente às lesões vaginais causadas pelo vírus do herpes simplex tipo 2 (HSV-2) em camundongos fêmeas BALB / c. O tratamento foi dividido em 5 dias de pré-tratamento com EHP [50 mg/kg, uma vez por dia, via intragástrica (i.g.)], infecção por HSV-2 [10 ml de uma solução de 1x102 de unidades formadoras de placas (PFU/ml-1 HSV-2), inoculação intravaginal no dia 6] e pós-tratamento com EHP (50 mg/kg) durante mais 5 dias. No dia 11, análises in vivo (escore de lesões) e ex vivo [avaliação hematológica e histológica; atividade das enzimas superóxido dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) e mieloperoxidase (MPO); espécies reativas (ER), níveis de nitração da tirosina, tióis não proteicos (NPSH) e ácido ascórbico (AA)] foram realizadas. O tratamento com o EHP reduziu as lesões extravaginais e os danos histológicos causados pelo HSV-2 no tecido vaginal dos animais infectados. O EHP foi capaz de diminuir os níveis de ER, de nitração da tirosina, de AA e a atividade da MPO. Além disso, protegeu contra a inibição de atividade da CAT nos tecidos vaginais. O EHP promoveu efeito protetor nos animais infectados com HSV-2 agindo sobre os processos inflamatórios e oxidativos, este efeito provavelmente ocorre devido as suas propriedades antioxidante e anti-inflamatória.

Le premier objectif a été de sélectionner des promoteurs de gènes cellulaires actifs spécifiquement dans les HCC à l’aide d’une recherche bibliographique puis en utilisant la base de donnée UniGene. Leur activité a été vérifiée par RT-qPCR et CHIP dans des lignées modèles HCC et dans des hépatocytes. Ces promoteurs ont été clonés en amont de la luciférase dans la région intergénique 20 du génome HSV-1 afin d’étudier leur force d’activité, 2 types de cinétiques et leur activité différentielle en fonction du type cellulaire et dans le contexte d’une infection virale. Le deuxième objectif a été de construire des virus oncolytiques ciblés pour l’expression de la protéine Us3, une protéine virale impliquée dans le contrôle de la réponse apoptotique induite par HSV-1. L’expression de la protéine Us3 est placée sous contrôle d’un promoteur cellulaire spécifique d’HCC. L’hypothèse est qu’en l’absence d’activité du promoteur cellulaire dans les cellules non HCC, la protéine Us3 ne sera pas synthétisée et, par conséquent, l’apoptose qui ne sera pas réprimée, inhibera le cycle de réplication et par conséquent, la production virale dans les cellules saines. Dans les cellules HCC, le promoteur actif permettra la réplication virale aboutissant à la destruction de lamasse tumorale. Un virus HSV-1 Us3- a été construit en utilisant la technique de recombinaison en plasmide BAC (Bacterial artificial chromosome), puis 2 virus oncolytiques en réintroduisant le gène Us3 sous contrôle du promoteur ANGPTL3 ou du promoteur HRE (hypoxia responsive element). Leur comportement oncolytique a été étudié en réalisant des courbes de croissance sur lignées cellulaires d’HCC et cellules hepatocyte-like. / Our long-term purpose is to develop transcriptionally targeted oncolytic vectors, derived from herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), designed to eradicate hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC). We have identified several HCC-specific promoters, as well as other cancer-specific promoters, that maintain their specificity when expressed from the virus genome. More precisely, we have demonstrated that these promoters are able to drive reporter gene (luciferase) expression from the virus genome in HCC-derived cells, both in cultured cells and in nude mice, but not in fresh human hepatocytes or in the WRL38 hepatocyte-like cells. HSV-1 infection induces, but then inhibits, a cellular antiviral apoptotic response, and the early virus protein US3 is a key actor in inhibiting apoptosis. We have hypothesized that inhibition of US3 expression in hepatocytes should led to early apoptotic death of these cells, therefore precluding virus multiplication and spread. In contrast, expression of US3 in cancer cells is expected to block apoptosis, leading to the achievement of the virus life cycle, cell lysis, and virus spread within the tumours. We report in this communication the construction and properties of two different potentially oncolytic HSV-1 vectors. One of them expresses US3 protein under the control of the HCC-specific promoter ANGPTL3, while the second promoter contains 9 repeats of the hypoxia responsive elements of vascular-endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (9xHRE promoter). Growth curves of these viruses were performed on different HCC cell lines to show their oncolytic properties.