While Berkeley's position on the materialism of the world is undoubtedly idealistic, Leibniz's position is somewhat problematic: in metaphysical texts, he seems to be an idealist, while in texts concerned with natural philosophy and physics, he seems more like a dualist similar to Aristotle. We will even see that Leibniz wants to be both an idealist/phenomenalist and a realist. Moreover, in his remarks to Berkeley, he criticizes Berkeley's idealism and his rejection of matter. The aim of this paper is to map Leibniz's idealistic position, compare it with Berkeley's, and decide whether Leibniz's objections to Berkeley are justified and whether their positions are any similar

Försvarsbeslutet 2020 innebär en markant ökad satsning på det svenska försvaret. Även om satsningen inte är jämförbar med upprustningen under andra världskriget och den inte når samma nivå som det kalla krigets neutralitetsförsvar, så utgör satsningen ett trendbrott. Under ett drygt decennium har försvaret gått från att utgöra ett ”särintresse”, ständigt utsatt för reduceringar, till att nu vara föremål för satsningar som innebär att försvaret återetableras på flera orter i landet. Förmågor och förband som varit föremål för avvecklingsdiskussioner får tillskott och den operativa förmågan skall öka. Perioden har också inneburit satsningar på, det i det närmaste bortrationaliserade, totalförsvaret i syfte att öka samhällets motståndskraft och medborgarnas skydd.Författarna vill med denna uppsats undersöka om det senaste decenniets förändringar av försvars- och säkerhetspolitiken kan beskrivas utefter en teoretisk referensram av realism och liberalism. Undersökningens huvudsakliga empiriska material utgörs av utrikes- och säkerhetspolitiska inriktningsdokument och linjetal från perioderna 2008/09, 2014/15 och 2019/20. Dessa dokument undersöks kvalitativt med en metod för tematisk analys och förändringar i det empiriska resultatet analyseras utefter idealtyperna realism och liberalism. Undersökningens slutsatser visar att de försvarspolitiska förändringarna går att beskriva utefter idealtyperna realism och liberalism och den svenska försvarspolitiken har i flera avseenden fått ett ökat inslag av realism samtidigt som den ideologiska grunden är bestående. En del urkunder beskriver det som ett paradigmskifte. / The Defense Bill of 2020 meant a significant increase in investment in the Swedish defence. Even if the investment is not comparable to the rearmament during the Second World War and it does not reach the same level as the Swedish armed forces of the Cold War neutrality had, the investment constitutes a change of trend. During little over a decade, the defence has gone from being described as a “special interest”, constantly exposed to reductions, to now being the subject of investments that mean that the Armed Forces is re-established in several places in the country. Capabilities and units that have been the subject of reduction discussions will be reinvigorated and the operational capability will increase. The period has also involved investments in, the almost dismantled, total defence in order to increase society's resilience and the protection of its citizens. With this dissertation, the authors want to investigate whether the changes in defence and security policy over the past decade can be described according to a theoretical frame of reference of realism and liberalism. The dissertation’s main empirical material consists of foreign and security policy documents and declarations from the periods 2008/09, 2014/15 and 2019/20. These documents are examined qualitatively with a method for thematic analysis and changes in the empirical result are analysed according to the ideal types of realism and liberalism. The inquiry’s conclusions show that the defence policy changes can be described according to the ideal types of realism and liberalism, and Swedish defence policy has in several respects gained an increased element of realism even though the ideology is consistent. Some documents describe it as a paradigm shift.

The presented diploma thesis deals with the issue of the legacy and reflection of the peace conference in the 20th century, through the theories of realism and idealism. The theoretical part presents the key theories of realism and idealism, from the perspective of several authors, as well as the first great debate in the sector of international relations. The distribution of forces at the peace conference in Paris is described in more detail, all the treaties forming the Versailles peace system are presented, and attention was also paid to the process of establishing the League of Nations. The main part of the work contains an analysis of the situation during the interwar period, with an emphasis on the sustainability of the idealistic peace concept, which contrasted with the realistic activities of individual states. Based on this, the main goal of the work is to answer the questions what caused the failure of the system of collective security, the demise of the League of Nations, as well as the possible transcendence of peace treaties to the present. Key words Peace conference, idealism, realism, interwar period, Versailles peace system, League of Nations

The study of the phenomenon of religion is a field that has many challenges regarding what its object of study is and how to observe and interpret the different religious phenomenon in a way that reflects both its origin and how its practiced. The study is carried out through a philosophical approach. In this essay Lua Nazerian intends to address the four different theoretical perspectives: Critical Religion Theory, Cognitive Sciences of Religion, Positive Psychology and Platonic Idealism. The two former ones are well established theoretical frameworks in the study of religion, while the two latter ones are lend from the field of psychology and philosophy to test whether they could be used as analytical tools in the study of religion. Moreover the perspectives different view on the human nature in particular are further examined through the lens of the subcategories: Materialism, Conceptualism and Realism. Furthermore, by adding the two subcategories of 1) a virtuous life 2) transcendence, the essay examines whether the perspectives touches on these topics which seems to be central concepts in the majority of religious doctrine. Finally, some possible conclusions of the perspectives inherent premises impacting the understanding of religion are carefully examined and presented. Suggested further studies to be done cross-disciplines, such as religious studies, positive psychology and philosophy. Also by a combination of descriptive and prescriptive approach within religious studies.

This dissertation examines the philosophical and spiritual beliefs that underpin William Blake’s account of the imagination, his objections to empiricism and his understanding of poetic language. It begins by considering these beliefs in relation to the idealist principles of George Berkeley as a means of illustrating Blake’s own objections to the empiricism of John Locke. The philosophies of Locke and Berkeley were popular in Blake’s society and their philosophical positions were well known to him. Blake and Berkeley are aligned against Locke’s belief in an objective world composed of matter, and his theory of abstract ideas. Both reject Locke’s principles by affirming the primacy of the perceiving subject. However, Blake disagrees with Berkeley’s theologically traditional understanding of God. He views perception as an act of artistic creation and believes that spiritual divinity is contained within and is intrinsic to man’s human form. This account of human perception as the creative act of an immanent divinity is further elucidated through a comparison with the twentieth-century existential phenomenology of Maurice Merleau-Ponty. In the Phenomenology of Perception (1945), Merleau-Ponty examines human experience as the functioning of an embodied consciousness in a shared life-world. While Merleau-Ponty does not make any reference to a spiritual deity, his understanding of experience offers a link between Berkeley’s criticisms of Locke and Blake’s own objections to empiricism. Through a comparative examination of Blake and Merleau-Ponty, the imagination is revealed to be the creative or formative consciousness that proceeds from the integrated mind-body complex of the “Divine Body” or “human form divine”. This embodied existence locates the perceiving self in a dynamic physical landscape that is shared with other embodied consciousnesses. It is this communal or intersubjective interaction between self and other that constitutes the experienced world. Merleau-Ponty’s account of the chiasm and his notion of flesh, discussed in The Visible and the Invisible, are applied to Blake in order to elucidate his belief in poetic vision and the constitutive power of language. The form and function of language are compared with that of the body, because both bring the individual experience of a perceiving subject into being in the world and facilitate the reciprocal exchange between the self and other. Ultimately, this dissertation argues that Blake characterises the body and language as the living media of the imagination, which facilitate a creative exchange between a perceiving self and a shared life-world.

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[pt] Este trabalho se desenvolve em três etapas, nas quais o contato entre Lima Barreto e Nietzsche caminha do contato do primeiro com as obras do segundo ao que há de mais profundo na forma como os dois autores constroem o mundo, um no final do século XIX, o outro no início do século XX. O escritor carioca, imerso em um contexto intelectual fervilhante nas primeiras décadas do século, teve contato com as correntes filosóficas mais importantes que circulavam no Rio de Janeiro do período. Tornou-se quase inevitável o contato com as obras de Nietzsche, que desde fins da década de 1890 tornara-se fenômeno no mundo intelectual, sendo absorvido por segmentos letrados específicos que usavam suas obras como embasamento de renovações estéticas e morais. Nesse contexto, Lima Barreto rechaça o pensamento nietzschiano como o que havia de mais vil, burguês e contrário aos ideais de solidariedade e comunidade que pregava. Contudo, uma leitura mais atenta permite entrever, por trás do debate público, uma relação mais imbricada entre a forma como os dois autores entendem a existência em um mundo que parecia fragmentar-se. A repetição nas anotações de Lima Barreto da frase do prólogo do Zaratustra nos abre uma leitura em que a perspectiva da construção do Eu – em uma literatura que caminha entre a complexidade de um mundo de aparência e o processo trágico de dissolução do sujeito – apontam para a crítica ao idealismo e para a fundamentação artística de um mundo em devir, seja nas exortações de Zaratustra, seja no caminhar de Gonzaga de Sá. / [en] This work is developed in three stages, in which the contact between Lima Barreto and Nietzsche moves from the contact of the former with the works of the later to what is most profound in the way the two authors build the world, one in the late nineteenth century, the other in the early twentieth century. The writer from Rio de Janeiro, immersed in a vibrant intellectual context in the first decades of the century, had contact with the most important philosophical currents that circulated in Rio de Janeiro at that time. Contact with Nietzsche s works became almost inevitable, as since the late 1890s he had become a phenomenon in the intellectual world, being absorbed by specific literate segments that used his works as a basis for aesthetic and moral renewals. In this context, Lima Barreto rejects Nietzsche s thought as the most vile, bourgeois and contrary to the ideals of solidarity and community that he preached. However, a closer reading allows us to glimpse, behind the public debate, a more intertwined relationship between the way in which the two authors understand existence in a world that seemed to be fragmenting. The repetition in Lima Barreto s notes of the sentence in the prologue of Zarathustra opens up a reading in which the perspective of the construction of the Self – in a literature that walks between the complexity of a world of appearance and the tragic process of dissolution of the subject – points to the critique of idealism and the artistic foundation of a world in the process of becoming, whether in Zarathustra s exhortations or in the wandering of Gonzaga de Sá.

This thesis presents Hegel’s account of abstract ‘understanding’ (Verstand) and asserts that his thought is to be read as primarily presenting a critique of abstract understanding. Verstand involves the methodological supposition of a self-subsistent fundament of what it speaks of, and hence the critique of understanding is the critique of the supposition of self-subsistent fundaments. Grasping his account and reading him in its critical light yields a very different image of Hegel than the caricature of ‘totalizing systems’. The dimension of the Verstandeskritik has been relatively neglected in Hegel-reception and misunderstandings result from trying to ‘understand’ Hegel, by overlooking the topic of ‘understanding’ in his work as critique. Many caricatures result from understanding Hegel as a proponent of what he actually critiques (‘absolute knowing’ is often understood as a mega-understanding). The thesis then addresses the historically influential criticisms raised by his contemporary, F.J.W. Schelling, to give a voice to a Hegel that has been hitherto drowned out by caricatures that began with Schelling.

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This study aims to explore how individuals who are operating Swedish elite football clubs manage the tension between non-profit and commercial logics, and whether organizational form is important when managing them. The respondents in this study are individuals with positions at the very highest organizational level, and predetermined themes that concern the tension within Swedish elite football were used in the design of the interview guide. The results were then analysed from a new institutional perspective. The outcome showed that elite football clubs tend to use similar strategies when managing the logics regardless of organizational form. / Denna studie ämnar undersöka hur individer som är verksamma inom svenska elitfotbollsföreningar hanterar spänningen mellan ideella och kommersiella logiker och om organisationsform har betydelse för hanteringen av dem. Respondenterna i denna studie är individer med befattningar på allra högsta organisatoriska nivå och förutbestämda teman som berör spänningen inom svensk elitfotboll användes vid utformandet av intervjuguiden. Resultaten analyserades sedan ur ett nyinstitutionellt perspektiv. Utfallet visade att elitfotbollsföreningar tenderar att använda likartade strategier vid hanteringen av logikerna oberoende av organisationsform.