[pt] Ler com vista a alcançar a compreensão ainda é uma dificuldade a ser superada por muitos alunos. A compreensão leitora e, mais especificamente, as inferências precisam se tornar objeto de ensino, cujo propósito seja formar leitores capazes de produzir sentido para o que leem. Assim, se as inferências demandam um ensino sistematizado, nosso objetivo com esta pesquisa foi analisar e descrever o conhecimento dos professores de quarto e quinto ano do ensino fundamental sobre o ensino de inferências. Participaram do presente estudo 67 professores que atuam ou já atuaram no quarto e/ou quinto ano em escolas do Rio de Janeiro. Esses professores responderam um formulário eletrônico contendo os instrumentos: 1) questionário sobre tipos de perguntas inferenciais e não inferenciais; 2) Escala de Estratégias para Ensino de Inferências (EEEI); 3) questionário de perfil dos docentes. Os achados receberam um tratamento quantitativo, e se estruturou a análise dos dados em duas etapas: análise fatorial exploratória e análise das frequências de respostas. Os resultados foram discutidos à luz da teoria cognitiva da leitura. De uma maneira geral, os resultados referentes às perguntas inferenciais e não inferenciais, bem como às estratégias de compreensão leitora apontaram que os professores conhecem tanto perguntas adequáveis ao ensino de inferências quanto estratégias de compreensão que possuem relevância em tal ensino. À vista desse conhecimento dos professores, uma perspectiva de ensino de compreensão que entende a leitura como uma atividade de produção de sentido se sobressaiu. Sobre a realização de perguntas, os professores declararam conhecer perguntas de processo e de produto, não se restringindo às perguntas literais. A importância dos conhecimentos prévios do leitor para o ensino de inferências parece integrar o conhecimento dos professores. Por meio desta pesquisa, foi possível ressaltar e discutir a importância da produção de inferências para a formação de leitores proficientes e autônomos, bem como dispor estratégias de compreensão leitora e refletir sobre elas como caminhos favoráveis para ensinar os alunos a estabelecerem inferências autorizadas pelo texto. Por fim, através do que os professores declararam conhecer a respeito de ensino de inferências, conseguimos analisar como questões relacionadas à compreensão leitora e, mais especificamente, à inferência são concebidas pelos docentes. / [en] Reading with a view to achieving comprehension is still a difficulty to be overcome by many students. Reading comprehension and, more specifically, inferences need to become an object of teaching, whose purpose is to form readers capable of producing meaning for what they read. Thus, if inferences demand a systematized teaching, our objective with this research was to analyze and describe 4th and 5th grade teachers knowledge about the teaching of inferences. In this study, 67 teachers who work or have worked in the 4th and/or 5th grade in schools of Rio de Janeiro participated. These teachers answered an electronic form containing the following instruments: 1) a questionnaire about the types of inferential and non-inference questions; 2) the Inferential Teaching Strategies Scale (EEEI); 3) a questionnaire about the teachers profile. The findings received a quantitative treatment, and the data analysis was structured in two stages: exploratory factor analysis and analysis of the frequency of responses. The results were discussed in the light of the cognitive theory of reading. In general, the results concerning inferential and non-inference questions, as well as reading comprehension strategies, indicated that teachers know both questions suitable for teaching inferences and comprehension strategies that have relevance in such teaching. In view of this teachers knowledge, a comprehension teaching perspective that understands reading as a meaning-making activity stood out. Regarding questioning, the teachers stated that they were familiar with process and product questions, not restricted to literal questions. The importance of the reader s prior knowledge to teach inferences seems to be part of the teachers knowledge. Through this research, it was possible to highlight and discuss the importance of the production of inferences for the formation of proficient and autonomous readers, as well as to have reading comprehension strategies and reflect on them as favorable ways to teach students to establish inferences authorized by the text. Finally, through what the teachers declared they knew about the teaching of inferences, we were able to analyze how issues related to reading comprehension and, more specifically, to inference are conceived by the teachers.

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The study has three different aims. One is to investigate reading comprehension among pupils in grade 4. Another is to trace any difficulties in reading comprehension to linguistic or social difficulties. The study also has a practical purpose in that the problems that exist can be identified and diagnosed earlier so that these pupils can be given extra support. The pupils’ reading comprehension has been tested with texts from their schoolbooks. Three different types of questions have been asked about the content of the texts. The pupils’ decoding ability has been tested with a letter and word-chain test and word comprehension with words from their schoolbook texts. The pupils who were tested are in grade 4 in a school in southern Sweden. There are three classes with a total of 59 pupils, of whom 48 participated in the study. It turns out that there are deficiencies in reading comprehension in several pupils in grade 4. The pupils have great problems with questions which require them to read several lines before they find the answer and with questions where they have to draw their own conclusions and use previous knowledge they were expected to have.

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no / Over the last century there have been a number of proposals to ground both local and cosmic arrows of time: from the Second law to the Growing Block Universe, from Decoherence to Earman’s time-direction heresy. The latter proposal rejects the traditional association of the Second law of thermodynamics with arrows of time. But it seems that notions like entropy and related notions – phase space volumes and typicality – are not easily banned from discussions of temporal arrows. A close reading of Eddington’s thinking on these questions reveals that his views underwent a considerable development. In particular Eddington abandoned his identification of the arrows of time with the increase in entropy and began to see the Second law as a criterion for temporal arrows. In the process, Eddington also developed an argument against Loschmidt’s reversibility objections, in terms of an expanding universe. This latter argument brings his contribution close to contemporary thinking in terms of Liouville’s theorem, the topology of phase space and typicality arguments. Their reliability to deliver arrows of time will therefore be considered. Are there arrows of time? This question is related to the epistemological views of both Eddington and Wheeler. They insisted on the role of inferences in scientific thinking. Physical reality was to be inferred from data (Eddington) or information (Wheeler) about the physical universe. The paper will conclude that the arrows of time are equally to be regarded as conceptual inferences from various physical criteria – not just entropy – which the universe makes available to us.

L’intérêt porté au développement de la compréhension écrite et, par conséquent, aux facteurs qui affectent son succès ou son échec, ainsi qu’aux pratiques de classe permettant de l’améliorer, a donné lieu à une abondance de recherches. Notre recherche vise à contribuer à ces efforts en étudiant le rôle de « l’inférence », une composante de la compréhension de lecture d’ordre supérieur. À cette fin, notre recherche a consiste à examiner la génération d’inférences lors de la lecture en identifiant les types d’inférences produites ainsi que les stratégies utilisées pour leur production. La génération d’inférences et l’utilisation de stratégies par les participants sont aussi traitées, dans le cadre de cette thèse, des liens qu’elles entretiennent avec marqueurs de réussite en lecture, tels qu’évalués par les épreuves standardisées. Notre étude poursuit ces objectifs dans un contexte de langue seconde en étudiant les performances d’un échantillon de 28 élèves ayant l’arabe comme langue promière et le français comme langue seconde. Les participants devaient lire un texte informatif et un texte narratif en francais. Les données sur la génération d’inférences au moment de la lecture par les participants ont été recueillies à l’aide d’un protocol de réflexions introspectives à voix haute, tandis que les données sur l’utilisation de stratégies ont été recueillies à l’aide d’une combinaison de protocoles de réflexion à voix haute introspectifs et rétrospectifs. Les habilités liées aux facteurs de réussite en lecture ont été mesurées à l’aide du test WIAT. Enfin, grâce à un questionnaure administré à tous les participants, nous avons pu établir des corrélations entre les données ciblées par cette étude et des variables sociodémpgraphiques associées aux participants. Les résultats des analyses qualitatives ont permis de faire émerger une taxonomie composée de cinq catégories d'inférence : pronominale basée sur le texte, anaphorique basée sur le texte, logique basée sur le texte, logique basée sur les connaissances et informationnelle basée sur les connaissances. Les analyses ont également permis d’identifier les différents types d'inférences englobés dans chacune de ces cinq catégories. Pour générer ces inférences, les participants ont utilisé un ensemble de 14 stratégies : « utilisation des connaissances linguistiques », « utilisation de mots-indices », « utilisation du contexte », « liaison », « utilisation des connaissances du monde », « attribution de valeurs par défaut », « faire preuve d'empathie », « commenter », « analyser l'inférence », « suspendre le jugement », « analyser les alternatives », « utiliser l'inférence précédente », « activer l'introduction » et « comparer ». Les analyses quantitatives ont révélé une production d'inférences plus prononcée au cours de la lecture du texte narratif par rapport à la lecture du texte informatif, en particulier en ce qui concerne les inférences basées sur le texte par rapport aux inférences basées sur les connaissances antérieures. Il a été constaté que les compétences en compréhension écrite étaient liées à la génération d'inférences et à l'utilisation de stratégies lors en contexte de lecture d’un texte informatif, mais pas dans le contexte de la lecture du texte narratif. / Interest in understanding reading comprehension skill and, in consequence, the factors that affect its success or failure, as well as, ultimately, the viable practices to improve it have yielded an abundance of research. Our research has sought to contribute to these efforts through studying the role of ‘inferencing’, a higher-order reading comprehension skill. To this end, our research involved examining inference generation during reading by identifying the types of inferences produced as well as the strategies used for their production. Participants’ online inference generation and strategy use were, then, evaluated in relation to reading comprehension skill. Our study pursues these objectives in a second language context by involving the participation of a sample of 28 L1 Arabic primary-level students who speak French as a second language. Thus, the texts used were in French and targeted both narrative and informative comprehension. Data on participants’ online inference generation were gathered using introspective think-alouds, while data on strategy use were gathered using a combination of introspective and retrospective think-aloud protocols. Participants’ reading comprehension skill was measured using the WIAT test. Possible sociodemographic influencing factors were considered using a questionnaire. Results of qualitative analyses concluded a taxonomy comprised of five inference categories: text-based pronominal, text-based anaphoric, text-based logical, knowledge-based logical, and knowledge-based informational. Analyses also identified the different inference types encompassed in each of these five categories. To generate these inferences, participants employed a set of 14 strategies: ‘use of linguistic knowledge’, ‘use of clue words’, ‘use of context’, ‘binding’, ‘use of world knowledge’, ‘assigning default values’, ‘empathizing’, ‘commenting’, ‘analyzing the inference’, ‘suspending judgement’, ‘analyzing alternatives’, ‘using previous inference’, ‘activating introduction’ and ‘comparison’. Quantitative analyses revealed more pronounced inference performance during narrative compared to informative comprehension, particularly, in relation with text-based compared to knowledge-based inferences. Reading comprehension skill was found to relate to inference generation and strategy use during informative but not narrative comprehension.

This study explored the inferences male children held about the brand personality. The sample included 46 male fifth graders. Personal interviews were conducted and the results were compiled and interpreted using descriptive statistics. Four subject areas were addressed: identification and inferences about brand personality, sources of inferences, children's ability to make inferences about other children based on brand personality, and application of brand personality to self. Results indicated children make inferences about brand personality, make inferences about other children based on brand personality, and apply brand personality to themselves. An attempt to identify sources of inferences was inconclusive.

Die Dissertation untersucht 1) welche Cues Kinder und Erwachsene in ihrer Cuebox haben, d.h. welche Cues für Inferenzen herangezogen wird, 2) wie Intuition über die Wichtigkeit von Cues die Informationssuche beeinflusst, und 3) wie das Framing eines Problems und das experimentelle Design die Intuition beeinflussen. Das erste Projekt untersucht den Effekt verschiedener Domänen und Objektrepräsentationen auf Erfragungsstrategien von Kindern und Erwachsenen in einer Kategorisierungsaufgabe. Ergebnisse zeigen, dass eine Basis-Level-Repräsentation (z.B. Hund) das Generieren von höher geordneten Merkmalen, welche die Objekte innerhalb einer übergeordneten Kategorie unterscheiden, für Kinder erleichtern und dadurch benutzt werden können, um effektive Fragen zu stellen. Dieser Effekt wurde nicht gefunden, wenn Kinder nicht selbst solche Merkmale generierten, sondern aus einem vordefinierten Set auswählen mussten. Das zweite Projekt untersuchte Kinder und junge Erwachsene bezüglich zweier Inferenzprobleme. In einer Bedingung mussten Cues selbst generiert werden, in einer anderen wurde ein Set von Cues vorgegeben. Ergebnisse zeigen, dass nur, wenn Cue selbst generiert wurden, junge Kinder gleich gut oder besser als ältere Kinder oder Erwachsene abschnitten, da sie Cues generierten, die ebenso informativ waren wie die der anderen beiden Altersgruppen. In dem dritten Projekt wurde getestet, wie die Art, Anzahl und Qualität der Cues die Fähigkeit von Kindern und jungen Erwachsenen beeinflusst, die informativsten Cues zu generieren bzw. auszuwählen. Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Cuebox von Kindern mehr perzeptuelle Cues beinhaltet als jene junger Erwachsener. Dennoch war der Informationsgehalt der generierten Cues in beiden Gruppen gleich. Junge Erwachsene zeigten die Tendenz, nicht-perzeptuelle Cues systematisch als informativer zu erachten als perzeptuelle Cues. Kinder zeigten die gleiche Tendenz nur dann, wenn sie aus einem vordefinierten Set auswählen mussten. / My dissertation addresses the questions 1) what cues children and adults have in their cuebox (i.e., the set of cues available for making inferences or categorizing), 2) how people’s intuition about the importance of the cues drives their information search, and 3) how the framing of a problem and the experimental design influence these intuitions. A first project investigated developmental differences in how children and adults solve a sequential binary categorization task. Results show that, apart from age-related differences, children’s but not adults’ inquiry strategies improve if objects are represented at the basic level (e.g., dog) but not if represented at the subordinate level (e.g., Dalmatian) or when the basic level is specified by additional features (e.g., dog, kennel, to wag, collar). Explanations are that, unlike other representations, basic level objects trigger features that are useful for categorization, and therefore help children ask more effective questions. A second project tested children and young adults on two inference problems, by manipulating whether cues were generated or given. Results show that, only when generating their own cues, younger children matched or even outperformed the accuracy of older children and young adults, by generating cues that were as informative as the those generated by older children and young adults. A third project examined the type, amount and informativeness of the cues in people’s cuebox. Further, it investigated the influence of the type of cues on the ability of children and young adults to generate or select the most informative cue available. Results show that children’s cuebox contains more perceptual cues than young adults’. We found no difference between the two age groups in terms of informativeness of the cues generated. Young adults showed the tendency to systematically consider non-perceptual cues more informative than perceptual cues. Children showed such tendency only in a cue-selection task.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T19:33:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao ANA KARINA BARBOSA SAMPAIO.pdf: 639922 bytes, checksum: 45b1ff8aef3b742bbb9fddadb0919ecd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005-11-21 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This Master essay deals with inductive understanding for local produced texts written by students in Basic Education Local Network, Picos, State of Piaui, Brazil. We deem local produced texts as those texts written by individuals involved in the research social-cognitive environment. Our purpose, from a comprehensive point of view, is to discuss the inductive process for local circulating text readers as a starting point for their social-cultural universe increasing. Therefore, in order to establish which induction types were performed by 8th grade students who read a sole text, we analyzed such induction types. In this essay, we deem reading as the knowledge building process which occurs through an interaction between text and reader. Reader gives meaning to his/her readings, i.e., he/she understands the written text using inferences, which inferences were defined by Marcuschi (1985) as being a reader cognitive capability for building new propositions from other given propositions. Inferences are methods performed by the reader in the reading interaction process. Inferences are basic for understanding, since reader fulfills at the interaction time holes left in text, when there occurs prior acknowledge activation which acknowledge is stored in memory, and it is organized into a structure forming a cognitive model. We performed the research in two schools: Frei Damião (inside city zone), and Acelino Araújo (rural zone). Data were collected from a social-cultural questionnaire, and from the performance of two reading workshops, writing and voicing, in which the understanding of poems Rios Guaribas and Rios sem Discurso was suggested. The major part of students performed analogical-semantic type inferences, and they exhibited a greater understanding interaction in connection with Rio Guaribas poem, a local produced text. Such event is explained for this text dealing with questions that are closer to students social-cognitive environment, while otherwise in relation to Rios sem Discurso poem understanding it was more difficult, which is explained by a fault in linguistic acknowledgement activation in relation to certain lexical items. / Esta dissertação de Mestrado versa sobre a compreensão inferencial do texto escrito dos alunos do Ensino Fundamental da Rede Municipal de Picos-PI em textos de produção local. Consideramos os textos de produção local aqueles que são produzidos contexto sociocognitivo dos sujeitos envolvidos na pesquisa. Objetivamos, num campo maior, discutir o processo inferencial dos leitores em textos de circulação local como ponto de partida para a ampliação do seu universo sociocultural. Para isso, analisamos quais os tipos de inferência foram realizados por educandos da 8ª série na leitura de um mesmo texto. Entendemos a leitura, nesta dissertação, como um processo de construção do conhecimento que se dá por meio da interação entre o texto e leitor. Este último produz sentidos para suas leituras, isto é, compreende o texto escrito utilizando-se das inferências, as quais Marcuschi (1985) as define como sendo uma capacidade cognitiva do leitor para construir novas proposições a partir de outras já dadas. As inferências são estratégias realizadas pelo leitor no processo de interação da leitura. Elas são fundamentais para a compreensão, uma vez que o leitor preenche as lacunas deixadas no texto no momento da interação, em que há uma ativação dos conhecimentos prévios que são armazenados na memória e são organizados em estruturas que formam um modelo cognitivo. Realizamos a pesquisa em duas escolas: Frei Damião (zona urbana) e Acelino Araújo (zona rural). Coletamos os dados a partir de questionário sociocultural e a aplicação de duas oficinas de leitura, escrita e oralidade, em que foram sugeridas a compreensão dos poemas Rio Guaribas e Rios sem Discurso, respectivamente. Os educandos realizaram, em sua maioria, inferências do tipo analógico-semânticas e apresentaram um maior grau de interação na compreensão do poema Rio Guaribas, texto de produção local. Este fato é explicado pelo fato deste texto abordar questões que estão mais próximas do contexto sociocognitivo dos alunos, enquanto que na compreensão do poema Rios sem Discurso houve um maior grau de dificuldade, justificado pela falha na ativação dos conhecimentos lingüísticos relacionados a determinados itens lexicais.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-10T10:55:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Hugo Pereira Leite Filho.pdf: 1747513 bytes, checksum: 1d5d4b0eff9478fb7f58eca6fa166bec (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-08-25 / This study has involved the interaction among knowledge in very distinctive areas, or else: informatics, engineering e genetics, emphasizing the building of a taking decision backing system methodology. The aim of this study has been the development of a tool to help in the diagnosis of chromosomal aberrations, presenting like tutorial model the Turner Syndrome. So to do that there have been used classification techniques based in decision trees, probabilistic networks (Naïve Bayes, TAN e BAN) and neural MLP network (from English, Multi- Layer Perception) and training algorithm by error retro propagation. There has been chosen an algorithm and a tool able to propagate evidence and develop efficient inference techniques able to originate appropriate techniques to combine the expert knowledge with defined data in a databank. We have come to a conclusion about the best solution to work out the shown problem in this study that was the Naïve Bayes model, because this one presented the greatest accuracy. The decision - ID3, TAN e BAN tree models presented solutions to the indicated problem, but those were not as much satisfactory as the Naïve Bayes. However, the neural network did not promote a satisfactory solution. / O estudo envolveu a interação entre áreas de conhecimento bastante distintas, a saber: informática, engenharia e genética, com ênfase na metodologia da construção de um sistema de apoio à tomada de decisão. Este estudo tem como objetivo o desenvolvimento de uma ferramenta para o auxílio no diagnóstico de anomalias cromossômicas, apresentando como modelo tutorial a Síndrome de Turner. Para isso foram utilizadas técnicas de classificação baseadas em árvores de decisão, redes probabilísticas (Naïve Bayes, TAN e BAN) e rede neural MLP (do inglês, Multi- Layer Perceptron) com algoritmo de treinamento por retropropagação de erro. Foi escolhido um algoritmo e uma ferramenta capaz de propagar evidências e desenvolver as técnicas de inferência eficientes capazes de gerar técnicas apropriadas para combinar o conhecimento do especialista com dados definidos em uma base de dados. Chegamos a conclusão que a melhor solução para o domínio do problema apresentado neste estudo foi o modelo Naïve Bayes, pois este modelo apresentou maior acurácia. Os modelos árvore de decisão-ID3, TAN e BAN apresentaram soluções para o domínio do problema sugerido, mas as soluções não foram tão satisfatória quanto o Naïve Bayes. No entanto, a rede neural não promoveu solução satisfatória.