O curso da infecção pelo HCV é determinado pela competência da resposta imune inata e adaptativa do hospedeiro. A IL-18 é uma citocina pró-inflamatória importante em ambas as respostas imunes e atua sinergicamente com IL-12 induzindo a expressão de IFN-y pelas células T e natural killer. O IFN-? por sua vez possui um papel chave no combate de infecções intracelulares, induzindo um estado antiviral nas células infectadas. O balanço de IL-18 é controlado pela IL18BP, uma citocina importante que atua como um antagonista natural. Estudos mostram que indivíduos cronicamente infectados pelo HCV possuem elevados níveis séricos de IL-18 e IL18BP. Sendo assim, o presente estudo teve como objetivos: 1) determinar o genótipo de polimorfismos de base única (SNPs) localizados nos genes da IL-18 (-607 C > A e -137 G > C), IL18BP (rs2298455 e rs1541304) e IFN-y +874 T > A; 2) quantificar a expressão de seus respectivos mRNAs; e por fim, 3) dosagem dos níveis séricos das respectivas citocinas. Para isto, foram selecionados 51 indivíduos com resolução espontânea e 50 com infecção crônica pelo HCV genótipo 1 que submetidos a técnica de PCR em tempo real para a genotipagem dos polimorfismosIL-18 (-607 C > A e -137 G > C), IL18BP (rs2298455 e rs1541304) e IFN-? +874 T > A; posteriormente foi feita a análise da expressão gênica destes mRNA utilizando como controle endógeno o GAPDH e a dosagem das citocinas foi determinada peta técnica de ELISA. A distribuição dos genótipos nos polimorfismos nos genes IL-18 e IL18BP foram semelhantes nos dois grupos de estudo. No entanto, para o polimorfismo no gene do IFN-?, observamos frequência maior do genótipo TA no grupo de infecção crônica, enquanto que no grupo de resolução espontânea foi mais frequente o genótipo AA (p=0.006). Em contrapartida a expressão gênica nos permitiu observar que nos indivíduos com infecção crônica o mRNA de IL-18 (p < 0.001) e IL18BP (p < 0.001) estavam com uma maior expressão quando comparados com os indivíduos com resolução espontânea, e que isto refletia nas dosagens séricas, onde os indivíduos cronicamente infectados pelo HCV apresentavam altos níveis séricos de IL-18 (p < 0.001) e IL18BP (p=0.012) do que os indivíduos com resolução espontânea. O alelo G foi associado com uma maior produção de IL-18(p=0.02) nos indivíduos com resolução espontânea. Em relação à expressão gênica do mRNA do IFN-y não foi possível observar nenhuma diferença entre os grupos estudados (p=0.322) e a dosagem sérica não foi detectada em ambos os grupos. Os resultados sugerem que apesar do sistema imune ser estimulado durante a infecção pelo HCV, a persistência viral leva a um estado de anergia onde a produção de IFN- y parece ser escassa para uma resposta imune eficaz, sendo que os meios nos quais modulam a expressão gênica do IFN- y ainda parecem obscuros, no entanto já foram descritos mecanismos pós-transcricionais que tem como alvo a região 3\'UTR do mRNA do IFN- y podendo interferir na sua expressão / The course of HCV infection is determined by the competence of the innate and adaptive immune response of the host. IL-18 is an important proinflammatory cytokine in both immune responses and acts synergistically with IL-12 induces the expression of IFN-y by T and natural killer cells. The IFN-yturn plays a key role in fighting intracellular infections, inducing an antiviral state in infected cells. The balance of IL-18 is controlled by IL18BP, an important cytokine that acts as a natural antagonist. Studies show that individuals chronically infected with HCV have elevated serum levels of IL-18 and IL18BP. Therefore, this study aimed to: 1) determine the genotype of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located in genes of IL-18 (-607 C > A and -137 G > C), IL18BP (rs2298455 and rs1541304) and IFN-y +874 T > A; 2) to quantify the expression of their respective mRNAs; and finally 3) the determination of serum levels of the respective cytokines. Fifty-one individuals with spontaneous clearance and 50 were selected with chronic HCV genotype 1 infection who underwent the technique of real-time PCR for genotyping polymorphisms of IL-18 (-607 C > A and -137 G > C), IL18BP (rs2298455 and rs1541304) and IFN-y +874 T > A; later analysis of gene expression of these mRNA was performed using GAPDH as endogenous control and used the ELISA method for the serum of these cytokines. The distribution of genotypes in the IL-18 polymorphisms and IL18BP genes were similar in both study groups. However, for the polymorphism in the IFN-y gene, the genotype most frequently observed in the group of TA chronic infection, whereas in the group of spontaneous clearance AA was more frequent (p = 0.006) genotype. In contrast to gene expression allowed us to observe that in individuals with chronic infection the mRNA of IL-18 (p < 0.001) and IL18BP (p < 0.001) had a higher expression when compared with individuals with spontaneous resolution, and that this reflected in serum using the ELISA technique, where individuals chronically infected with HCV had higher serum levels of IL-18 (p < 0.001) and IL18BP (p = 0.012) than subjects with spontaneous clearance. The G allele was associated with increased production of IL-18 (P = 0.02)in spontaneous clearance group. Regarding the gene expression of IFN-y mRNA was not observed any difference between the groups (p = 0.322) and the serum was not detected in both groups. The results suggest that although the immune system is stimulated during HCV infection leads to viral persistence of anergy a state where the production of IFN-? appears to be scarce for an effective immune response, and the means in which modulate the expression the IFN-y gene still seem unclear, however have been described post-transcriptional mechanisms which target the 3\'UTR of the mRNA of IFN-y may interfere with its expression

INTRODUÇÃO: O fato do vírus da Hepatite C (HCV) estabelecer uma infecção crônica persistente, na maioria dos casos, mesmo sendo reconhecido e alvejado pelos sistemas imune inato e adaptativo sugere que o mesmo tenha desenvolvido estratégias eficazes para driblar a ação desses sistemas. O HCV interfere na fase inicial de ativação da resposta imune adaptativa alterando a função das células dendríticas (DCs), o que provavelmente leva a uma ativação deficiente das células natural killer (NKs) e de linfócitos T. Portanto, a realização de estudos sobre DCs e NKs na infecção pelo HCV se torna de fundamental importância para a compreensão da patogênese e persistência desta infecção. MÉTODOS: Foram selecionados indivíduos com resolução espontânea da infecção pelo HCV, indivíduos com infecção crônica e indivíduos saudáveis. A técnica de citometria de fluxo foi utilizada para a determinação da frequência e do fenótipo de células dendríticas e NKs nesses indivíduos. Além disso, foi avaliada a atividade citotóxica das células NKs sob estímulo de IL-12 e IL-18, e também da linhagem K-562. RESULTADOS: A frequência de DC mielóides (mDC) expressando CD86, nos indivíduos crônicos, foi elevada e uma correlação positiva com a carga viral foi observada. Na análise do ensaio funcional foi observado que as populações de células NKs CD7+ CD57+ apresentaram maior expressão da molécula CD107a e baixa produção de IFNy nos indivíduos com infecção crônica. A constante exposição das células imunes ao IFN-alfa, induzido durante a infecção pelo HCV, resulta na polarização do fenótipo citotóxico, caracterizado por células NK ativadas com elevado poder de degranulação, mas com deficiente produção de IFN-y. CONCLUSÕES: As frequências das células DCs e NKs eram semelhantes em todos os indivíduos. A expressão da molécula CD86 na superfície das mDCs pode ter sido induzida pela presença do HCV, uma vez que foi observada correlação positiva com a carga viral. Células NK citotóxicas, altamente diferenciadas e incapazes de produzir IFN-y foram as mais frequentes na infecção crônica pelo HCV. A baixa produção de IFN-y por parte dessas células é um dos fatores envolvidos na deficiente ativação de uma resposta imune adaptativa capaz de controlar a infecção pelo HCV / INTRODUCTION: Hepatitis C virus (HCV) develops a chronic persistent infection in most of the cases, even being recognized and targeted by the innate and adaptive immune systems, suggests that the virus have developed effective strategies to circumvent the action of these systems. HCV interferes in the initial activation of the adaptive immune response by altering the function of dendritic cells (DCs), which probably leads to a deficient activation of natural killer cells (NK) and T lymphocytes. Therefore, studies of DCs and NK in HCV infection are very important for understanding the pathogenesis and the persistence of this infection. METHODS: We selected subjects with spontaneous resolution of HCV infection, with chronic infection and healthy subjects. Flow Cytometry was used to determine the frequency and phenotype of dendritic cells and NK cells of these individuals. In addition, we evaluated the NK cell cytotoxic activity in response to stimulation of IL-12 and IL-18 and in co-cultivation with the cell line K-562. RESULTS: In individuals with chronic infection, the frequency of myeloid (m) DC cells expressing CD86 was elevated and a positive correlation between these cells and viral load was observed. It was observed in chronic infected individuals that NK cells co-expressing CD7 and CD57 showed higher expression of CD107a and low production of IFN gamma. The constant exposure of immune cells to IFN-alfa induced during HCV infection results in the polarization of cytotoxic phenotype characterized by activated NK cells with high power degranulation, but with impaired production of IFN-y. CONCLUSIONS: The frequency of DCs and NK cells were similar in all individuals. The expression of CD86 molecule on the surface of mDCs may have been induced by the presence of HCV, since a positive correlation was observed with viral load. Cytotoxic NK cells, highly differentiated and unable to produce IFN-y, were the most frequent in chronic HCV infection. The low production of IFN-y by these cells is one of the factors involved in the poor activation of an adaptive immune response able to control HCV infection

nÃo hà / A ativaÃÃo das cÃlulas do sistema imunolÃgico à modulada atravÃs dos sinais acionados por uma diversidade de receptores de superfÃcie celular, incluindo os receptores ativadores, receptores coestimuladores e receptores inibidores. Receptores relacionados à molÃcula sinalizadora na ativaÃÃo do linfÃcito (SLAM) tÃm influÃncia na ativaÃÃo imunolÃgica celular. Neste trabalho, investigou-se a funÃÃo de SLAM na resposta imunolÃgica à Leishmania braziliensis, e se a resposta de indivÃduos alto (AP) ou baixo (BP) produtores de IFN-&#947; seria modulada pela via de sinalizaÃÃo SLAM. CÃlulas monocucleadas do sangue perifÃrico (CMSP) de 43 indivÃduos foram bloqueadas com &#945;-SLAM, rIFN-&#947;, rIL-12 e fitohemaglutinina, apÃs estimulaÃÃo com L. brazilensis. Verificou-se que L. braziliensis promoveu uma significante reduÃÃo da expressÃo de SLAM nas cÃlulas T, com 120h de cultivo, possivelmente indicando ativaÃÃo desta via na resposta imunolÃgica inicial. A expressÃo de SLAM se comportou de modo diferenciado nos indivÃduos AP e BP. Nos indivÃduos BP, L. braziliensis nÃo alterou a expressÃo de SLAM nas cÃlulas T, na fase inicial da resposta imunolÃgica. O bloqueio da via de SLAM com &#945;-SLAM reduziu significativamente a expressÃo desta proteÃna nos primeiros momentos da resposta imunolÃgica das CMSP estimuladas com L. braziliensis. O bloqueio com &#945;-SLAM, avaliado com 120 horas, nÃo alterou a expressÃo de CD3+SLAM+, em ambos os grupos. As citocinas proinflamatÃrias, rIFN-&#947; e rIL-12, presentes no microambiente com L. braziliensis, reduziram a expressÃo de SLAM apenas em indivÃduos AP com 6h de sensibilizaÃÃo e nÃo modificaram esta resposta com 120h de cultivo, na presenÃa do antÃgeno. O bloqueio com &#945;-SLAM, na concentraÃÃo de 10&#956;g/ml, nÃo interferiu na produÃÃo das citocinas IFN-&#947; e IL-13, em ambos os grupos, entretanto aumentou de forma significativa a produÃÃo de IL-10 em indivÃduos AP. O bloqueio da via de SLAM associado à L. braziliensis e rIFN-&#947; nÃo modificou a produÃÃo de IFN-&#947;, IL-13 e IL-10. O bloqueio da via de SLAM associado à L. braziliensis e rIL-12 induziu aumento de IFN-&#947;, nos indivÃduos BP, e aumento de IL-13, nos indivÃduos AP. Os resultados deste trabalho sugerem que, na resposta in vitro de CMSP, sensibilizadas com L. braziliensis, a via de sinalizaÃÃo SLAM atua na modulaÃÃo da resposta Th1 em indivÃduos AP e induz uma condiÃÃo de imunossupressÃo temporÃria nos indivÃduos BP, nÃo descrita anteriormente na literatura. / Immune cells activation is modulated by balancing the signals triggered by a variety of cell surface receptors, including receptor activators, co-stimulating receptors and inhibitory receptors. Receptor-related signaling molecule in lymphocyte activation (SLAM) influences the immune cell activation. In this study we investigated the role of SLAM in immune response of cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by L. braziliensis, as well as if the response of individuals high (HP) or low (LP) IFN-&#947; producers is modulated by SLAM signaling pathway. Peripheral blood monocuclear cells (PBMC) isolated from 43 health individuals were cultured in vitro with anti-SLAM, rIFN-&#947;, rIL-12 and phytohemagglutinin in the presence or in the absence of L. braziliensis. It was found that L. braziliensis promoted a significantly reduced SLAM expression in T cells, after 120 h of cultured, possibly indicating activation of this pathway in the initial immune response. SLAM expression behaved differently in HP and LP groups. In LP group, L. braziliensis did not modify SLAM expression in T cells in early immune response. The effect of anti-SLAM on SLAM pathway reduced the expression of this protein in the early stages of the immune response of PBMC stimulated with L. braziliensis. After 120 h the effect of anti-SLAM did not alter CD3+SLAM+ expression in both groups. The proinflammatory cytokines, rIFN-&#947; and rIL-12, present in the microenvironment with L. braziliensis, reduced SLAM expression only in HP group after 6 h of culture and did not change this response after 120 h. Anti-SLAM at a concentration of 10 &#956;g/ml presented no effect on production of cytokines IFN-&#947; and IL-13 in both groups, but significantly increased IL-10 production in the HP group. Furthermore anti-SLAM associated with L. braziliensis and rIFN-&#947; simultaneously did not modify IFN-&#947;, IL-13 and IL-10 productions. Anti-SLAM associated with L. braziliensis and rIL-12 simultaneously induced an increase of IFN-&#947; in LP group, and increased IL-13 in HP group. These results suggest that in vitro immune response of PBMC exposed to L. braziliensis, the SLAM signaling pathway acts in modulating Th1 response in HP group and induces a condition of temporary immunosuppression in LP group, not previously described in literature.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that, despite all efforts devoted towards its eradication, remains a threat to many countries including South Africa. Current diagnostic assays do offer better performance than the conventional sputum smear microscopy and tuberculin skin tests. However, these assays have been proven to be affected by various factors including the condition of an individual's immune system and vaccination history. By far, electrochemical biosensors are amongst the currently investigated techniques to address the shortcomings associated with these diagnostics. / 2020-08-31

O desenvolvimento gradual e recente de uma epidemia mundial de obesidade alavancou sobremaneira o estudo dessa condição e de suas comorbidades metabólicas. No âmbito fisiopatológico, múltiplos estudos demonstraram a expressão aumentada de mediadores inflamatórios no tecido adiposo de animais e humanos obesos, o acúmulo local de macrófagos, e um papel central da inflamação no desequilíbrio da homeostase metabólica local e sistêmica na obesidade. A definição de um papel ativo dos macrófagos, e portanto da imunidade inata, na rede inflamatória do tecido adiposo, evocou a hipótese de que, similarmente a outras condições inflamatórias crônicas como a aterosclerose, a obesidade também contaria com a importante participação de elementos da imunidade adaptativa, como as células T e suas citocinas, em sua fisiopatologia. Com base nessas considerações, os objetivos principais desse estudo foram: 1) avaliar a presença das células T e o papel do interferon-gama (IFNy), clássica citocina T-helper 1 (ou Th1), na inflamação do tecido adiposo; e 2) estudar mecanismos de acúmulo das células T no tecido adiposo na obesidade, particularmente a participação do receptor CXCR3 nesse processo. Experimentos de citometria de fluxo mostraram que o tecido adiposo visceral de camundongos C57BL/6 obesos após consumo de dieta rica em gorduras apresentou maior número de macrófagos e também de células T, CD4+ e CD8+, em comparação a controles que receberam dieta pobre em gorduras. A expressão de I-Ab, marcador do complexo de histocompatibilidade principal classe II (MHC II) murino, também foi maior no tecido adiposo dos animais obesos, sugerindo a presença local da atividade de apresentação de antígeno com consequente ativação das células T. Quando estimuladas in vitro, células T derivadas do tecido adiposo de camundongos obesos produziram mais IFNy do que aquelas isoladas de controles, novamente sugerindo a ativação dessas células em um contexto de obesidade. Na análise das possíveis funções do IFNy no tecido adiposo, a estimulação da linhagem de células 3T3-L1 diferenciadas em adipócitos com IFNy recombinante resultou na produção aumentada de quimiocinas de macrófagos, como a proteína quimiotática de monócito (MCP-1), e de quimiocinas de células T, como a proteína 10 induzida por IFNy (IP-10) e monocina induzida por IFNy (MIG). A estimulação de adipócitos com o sobrenadante de células Th1 cultivadas in vitro, com abundante concentração de IFNy, também levou à produção aumentada de IP-10. Em análise mais ampla, através de microarray, dos possíveis efeitos do IFNy na expressão gênica de adipócitos, o tratamento dessas células com 100 U/ml de IFNy resultou na expressão aumentada de diversas quimiocinas e seus receptores em comparação ao grupo tratado com placebo. Similarmente à estimulação de células isoladas com IFNy, a incubação de tecido adiposo ex vivo de camundongos com essa citocina também resultou em secreção aumentada de IP-10, MIG e fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNFy). A investigação do papel do IFNy na inflamação do tecido adiposo in vivo envolveu camundongos com deficiência de IFNy e controles, ambos os grupos submetidos a dieta rica em gorduras (obesos) ou pobre em gorduras (não obesos). Camundongos obesos deficientes em IFNy apresentaram expressão reduzida de mRNA de genes inflamatórios como TNFalfa e MCP-1 no tecido adiposo; acúmulo local reduzido de macrófagos; e melhor tolerância à glicose em comparação aos controles sob mesma dieta. Animais com deficiência de apolipoproteína E (ApoE) e também do receptor de IFNy também apresentaram em seu tecido adiposo a expressão reduzida de mRNA de genes inflamatórios, particularmente relacionados às células T, como IP-10, MIG, e o receptor CXCR3, em comparação aos controles com deficiência única de ApoE. Resultados in vitro e in vivo sugerem conjuntamente um importante papel do IFNy, e portanto, das células T e da imunidade adaptativa, na rede inflamatória do tecido adiposo na obesidade, com consequente impacto metabólico sistêmico. A presença de células T ativadas no tecido adiposo e seu acúmulo diferencial na obesidade motivaram também a pesquisa de potenciais mecanismos quimiotáticos reguladores desse processo. CXCR3, receptor das quimiocinas de células T, IP-10, MIG e quimiocina alfa de células T IFNy-induzida (I-TAC), é expresso preferencialmente em células T ativadas, e detém papel central na migração dessas células em outras condições inflamatórias crônicas, como a aterosclerose. Em camundongos com deficiência de CXCR3 e que receberam dieta rica em gorduras por 8 ou 16 semanas, o tecido adiposo apresentou significativamente menos células T, incluindo as células CD4+ e CD8+, em comparação a controles submetidos a mesma dieta. Os números similares de células T e outras populações de leucócitos no baço e sangue periférico dos animais deficientes em CXCR3 e controles fortalecem o conceito de um efeito do CXCR3 sobre o acúmulo de células T no tecido adiposo, independentemente do número de células circulantes e periféricas. Os camundongos deficientes em CXCR3 apresentaram também maior tolerância à glicose e expressão reduzida de mRNA de mediadores inflamatórios em seu tecido adiposo em comparação aos controles após 8 semanas de dieta rica em gorduras. No entanto, a diferença na tolerância à glicose entre os dois grupos tornou-se não significativa após 16 semanas de dieta gordurosa, coincidindo com redução substancial na expressão de mRNA de mediadores anti-inflamatórios (como interleucina-10 [IL-10] e Arginase 1), e número reduzido de células T regulatórias no tecido adiposo de camundongo s deficientes em CXCR3 em relação a controles. Esses resultados sugerem que o CXCR3 é capaz de regular o acúmulo de células T de diferentes subtipos, com perfil proinflamatório ou anti-inflamatório. Em conclusão, nossos resultados revelam um importante papel da citocina Th1 IFNy na rede inflamatória do tecido adiposo na obesidade em camundongos, sugerindo a participação fundamental das células T e portanto, da imunidade adaptativa nesse cenário. Além disso, o receptor CXCR3 contribui significativamente para o acúmulo das células T, incluindo as células T regulatórias, no tecido adiposo desses animais / The gradual and recent development of a worldwide epidemic of obesity greatly leveraged the study of this condition and its metabolic comorbidities. In the pathophysiologic context, multiple studies have demonstrated increased expression of inflammatory mediators in adipose tissue of obese animals and humans, the local macrophage accumulation, and a central role of inflammation in the imbalance of local or systemic metabolic homeostasis in obesity. The concept of an active role of macrophages and thus of innate immunity in the inflammatory network of adipose tissue, suggested the hypothesis that, similar to other chronic inflammatory conditions such as atherosclerosis, obesity also count on the participation of important elements of adaptive immunity such as T cells and their cytokines in its pathophysiology. Based on these considerations, the main objectives of this study were: 1) to evaluate the presence of T cells and the role of interferon-gamma (IFNy), classic T-helper 1 (Th1) cytokine, in adipose tissue inflammation, and 2) to study mechanisms of T cell accumulation in adipose tissue in the context of obesity, particularly the involvement of CXCR3 receptor in this process. Flow cytometry experiments showed that the visceral fat tissue of C57BL/6 obese mice fed a high fat diet showed a greater number of macrophages and also T cells, including CD4+ and CD8+ cells, compared to controls fed a low-fat diet. The expression of I-Ab, murine marker of class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC II), was also higher in adipose tissue of obese animals, suggesting the presence of local antigen presentation and consequent T cell activation. When stimulated in vitro, T cells derived from adipose tissue of obese mice produced more IFNy than those isolated from controls, again suggesting the activation of these cells in the context of obesity. In the analysis of possible functions of IFNy in adipose tissue, stimulation of 3T3 -L1 cells differentiated into adipocytes with recombinant IFNy resulted in enhanced production of macrophage chemokines, such as monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) and T-cell chemokines, such as interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (IP-10) and monokine induced by gamma interferon (MIG). The stimulation of adipocytes with the supernatant of in vitro cultured Th1 cells, with abundant levels of IFNy, has also led to increased IP-10 production. In a broader analysis, by microarray, of the possible effects of IFNy on adipocyte gene expression, treatment of these cells with 100 U/ml of IFNy resulted in increased expression of chemokines and their receptors in comparison to the placebo group. Similarly to the stimulation of isolated cells with IFNy, incubation of ex vivo adipose tissue with this cytokine also resulted in increased IP-10, MIG and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) secretion

Mycobacterium bovis is the causative agent of bovine tuberculosis (BTB) which has a diverse host range. The maintenance host of BTB in South Africa is the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer). It is believed that lions get infected by feeding on infected buffalo or through wounds. The spread of the disease amongst lions has raised concern regarding the future of the animals and the impact on tourism in the country. Diagnoses of tuberculosis in free ranging wildlife is often dependent on post-mortem samples due to logistical challenges, the use of the lion specific interferon gamma release assay as an antemortem test offers a simpler methodology to testing live animals. The aim was to optimise an already developed assay by Maas et al.,2012 and to harmonise it with the Rhinoceros specific interferon gamma assay developed by Morar-Leather et al 2007. Optimisation of the interferon gamma specific ELISA included: determination of optimal concentrations for the capture and detection monoclonal antibodies; optimal concentrations for the conjugate and evaluation of alternative blocking agents. Different mitogens and incubation times were evaluated for the stimulation of whole blood as positive control in the assay. The optimum concentration for coating the plates with the capture monoclonal antibody was 2 g/ml. An optimum dilution of 1:5000 was selected for both the biotinylated detection monoclonal antibody and the streptavidin horseradish peroxidase conjugate. The assay was optimised using recombinant lion interferon gamma and the lower detection limit was calculated to be 109 pg/ml. Phosphate buffered saline with 1% bovine serum albumin was found to be Chapter 1 © University of South Africa iii a suitable blocking agent. Native interferon gamma was detected in whole blood samples from 5 lions and a 24 hour incubation time with PMA and ionomycin was selected as the optimal mitogen positive control. This assay system demonstrated good potential as an ante mortem test for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in lions. In conclusion, the assay can detect IFN- from supernatants harvested from whole blood cultures stimulated with specific antigens and mitogens / Agriculture and  Animal Health / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

No description available.

Das human pathogene Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV) gehört zur Familie der Herpesviren und ist weltweit verbreitet. Die Primärinfektion verursacht Varicellen, welche durch einen bläschenartigen Hautausschlag charakterisiert ist. Im Anschluss daran etabliert VZV eine lebenslange Latenz und verursacht nach Reaktivierung Herpes Zoster. Seit 2004 ist der Lebendimpfstoff aus attenuierten Virionen des VZV-Stammes V-Oka in Deutschland empfohlen. Im Gegensatz zur Infektion mit zirkulierenden virulenten VZV Stämmen tritt nach Verimpfung des Vakzin-Stammes V-Oka kein Exanthem auf. Die Haut ist der Hauptreplikationsort von VZV und immunologische Unterschiede zwischen virulentem VZV und dem Vakzin-Stamm treten hier am deutlichsten auf. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte eine neue Immunevasionsstrategie virulenter VZV Stämme aufgedeckt werden, welche erklären könnte, wie virulente VZV Stämme frühe antivirale Immunantworten umgehen. In Hautläsionen von Herpes Zoster Patienten konnte eine massive Infiltration von myeloiden inflammatorischen Dendritischen Zellen beobachtet werden. In vitro Studien mit Monozyten abgeleiteten Dendritischen Zellen (DC), welche inflammatorische DC repräsentieren, zeigten, eine signifikant erhöhte Expression von CD1c Molekülen nach Infektion mit dem Vakzin-Stamm, sowie virulentem VZV. Funktionelle Untersuchungen mit intraepithelialen CD1c-restringierten gamma delta T Zellen zeigten, dass DC nach Infektion mit dem Vakzin-Stamm phänotypisch und funktionell reiften und somit die T Zellen zur IFN-gamma Sekretion stimulierten. Im Gegensatz dazu wurde die funktionelle Reifung von DC, die mit virulentem VZV infiziert waren, geblockt. Folglich wurde kein bioaktives IL-12 sezerniert, welches als entscheidendes Cytokin zum Aufbau einer antiviralen T-Helfer 1 Immunantwort beiträgt. Darüber hinaus konnte gezeigt werden, dass virulentes VZV die Signalkaskade des Toll-like Rezeptors 2 (TLR2) in DC inhibiert und somit die IL-12 Produktion verhindert. / Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) which belongs to the family of herpesviruses is restricted to humans and distributed worldwide. Primary infection of VZV causes chickenpox characterized by a disseminated rash. Thereafter, VZV establishes a lifelong latency and can be reactivated to cause herpes zoster. Since 2004 the attenuated strain V-Oka of VZV was licensed for Germany to immunize children against VZV infection. In contrast to infection by circulating virulent VZV strains, vaccination with V-Oka remains asymptomatic. The skin is the major replication site of VZV and immunological differences between virulent VZV and the vaccine should become most apparent within this immune organ. In summary, this study discovered a new immune evasion strategy of virulent VZV strains which might explain how virulent VZV strains overcome innate antiviral responses. A strong infiltration of myeloid-derived inflammatory DCs has been detected in skin lesions of herpes zoster patients. In vitro studies with monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs), reflecting inflammatory DCs, showed that they were efficiently infected by both, the vaccine and a virulent VZV strain. Intriguingly, a significant upregulation of CD1c molecules on VZV-infected DCs was observed. Functional investigations using intraepithelial CD1c-restricted gamma delta T cells revealed that DCs infected with the vaccine virus were fully instructed to mature, thereby promoting IFN-gamma secretion of gamma-delta T cells. In striking contrast, DCs infected with virulent VZV strains were efficiently blocked to mature functionally. In detail, they did not secrete bioactive IL-12 which is an instrumental cytokine for generation of antiviral T helper 1 responses. Moreover, virulent VZV blocked Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) signaling in DCs thereby preventing production of bioactive IL-12 which in turn inhibited IFN-gamma secretion by gamma-delta T cells.

Nitric oxide (NO) is an important biological molecule within the body, which over production of this molecule in response to different stimulations can cause various inflammatory diseases. Over production of this molecule is caused by the induction of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) enzyme. This enzyme uses L-arginine as a substrate and therefore the presence and transport of this amino acid into the cells can be a key factor in regulating NO over production. Different signalling mechanisms have been implicated in the regulation of this pathway and one of which involves the Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases (MAPK). This family of proteins respond to inflammatory conditions and may mediate effects induced by inflammatory mediators. Of the MAPKs, the role of the c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway in the induction of iNOS is still controversial. JNK and its downstream target, the transcription factor Activator Protein-1 (AP-1), have shown contradictory effects on iNOS induction leading to controversies over their role in regulating iNOS expression in different cell systems or with various stimuli. The studies described in this thesis have determined the role of JNK/AP-1 on iNOS expression, NO production, L-arginine uptake and also on the transporters responsible for L-arginine transport into the cells. The studies were carried out in two different cell types: rat aortic smooth muscle cells (RASMCs) and J774 macrophages which are both critically associated with the over production of NO in vascular inflammatory disease states. The first approach was to block the expression of the inducible L-arginine-NO pathway using SP600125 and JNK Inhibitor VIII which are both pharmacological inhibitors of JNK. The results from these studies showed that the pharmacological intervention was without effect in RASMCs, but inhibited iNOS, NO and L-arginine transport in J774 macrophages. In contrast, the molecular approach employed using two dominant negative constructs of AP-1 (TAM-67 and a-Fos) revealed a different profile of effects in RASMCs, where a-Fos caused an induction in iNOS and NO while TAM-67 had an inhibitory effect on iNOS, NO, L-arginine transport and CAT-2B mRNA expression. The latter was unaffected in RASMCs but suppressed in J774 macrophages by SP600125. Examination of JNK isoforms expression showed the presence of JNK1 and 2 in both cell systems. Moreover, stimulation with LPS/IFN- or LPS alone resulted in JNK phosphorylation which did not reveal any difference between smooth muscle cells and macrophages. In contrast, expression and activation of AP-1 subunits revealed differences between the two cell systems. Activation of cells with LPS and IFN- (RASMCs) or LPS alone (J774 macrophages) resulted in changes in the activated status of the different AP-1 subunit which was different for the two cell systems. In both cell types c-Jun, JunD and Fra-1 were increased and in macrophages, FosB activity was also enhanced. Inhibition of JNK with SP600125 caused down-regulation in c-Jun in both cell types. Interestingly this down-regulation was in parallel with increases in the subunits JunB, JunD, c-Fos and Fra-1 in RASMCs or JunB and Fra-1 in J774 macrophages. Since, SP600125 was able to exert inhibitory effects in the latter cell type but not in RASMCs, it is possible that the compensatory up-regulation of certain AP-1 subunits in the smooth muscle cells may compensate for c-Jun inhibition thereby preventing suppression of iNOS expression. This notion clearly needs to be confirmed but it is potentially likely that hetero-dimers formed between JunB, JunD, c-Fos and Fra-1 could sustain gene transcription in the absence of c-Jun. The precise dimer required has not been addressed but unlikely to exclusively involve JunB and Fra-1 as these are up-regulated in macrophages but did not sustain iNOS, NO or induced L-arginine transport in the presence of SP600125. To further support the argument above, the dominant negatives caused varied effects on the activation of the different subunits. a-Fos down-regulated c-Jun, c-Fos, FosB, Fra-1 whereas TAM-67 reduced c-Jun and c-Fos but marginally induced Fra-1 activity. Associated with these changes was an up-regulation of iNOS-NO by a-Fos and inhibition by TAM-67. Taken together, the data proposes a complex mechanism(s) that regulate the expression of the inducible L-arginine-NO pathway in different cell systems and the complexity may reflect diverse intracellular changes that may be different in each cell type and not always be apparent using one experimental approach especially where this is pharmacological. Moreover, these findings strongly suggest exercising caution when interpreting pure pharmacological findings in cell-based systems particularly where these are inconsistent or contradictory.

Le système immunitaire se doit d’être étroitement régulé afin d’éviter que des réponses immunologiques inappropriées ou de trop forte intensité ne surviennent. Ainsi, différents mécanismes permettent de maintenir une tolérance périphérique, mais aussi d’atténuer la réponse lorsque celle-ci n’est plus nécessaire. De tels mécanismes sont cependant aussi exploités par les tumeurs, qui peuvent ainsi échapper à une attaque par le système immunitaire et donc poursuivre leur progression. Ces mécanismes immunosuppresseurs nuisent non seulement à la réponse naturelle contre les cellules tumorales, mais font aussi obstacle aux tentatives de manipulation clinique de l’immunité visant à générer une réponse anti-tumorale par l’immunothérapie. L’un des mécanismes par lesquels les tumeurs s’évadent du système immunitaire est l’expression d’enzymes responsables du métabolisme des acides aminés dont l’une des principales est l’indoleamine 2,3-dioxygénase (IDO). Cette dernière dégrade le tryptophane et diminue ainsi sa disponibilité dans le microenvironnement tumoral, ce qui engendre des effets négatifs sur la prolifération, les fonctions et la survie des lymphocytes T qui y sont présents. Bien que la régulation de l’expression de cette enzyme ait été largement étudiée chez certaines cellules présentatrices d’antigènes, dont les macrophages et les cellules dendritiques, peu est encore connu sur sa régulation dans les cellules tumorales humaines. Nous avons posé l’hypothèse que différents facteurs produits par les cellules immunitaires infiltrant les tumeurs (TIIC) régulent l’expression de l’IDO dans les cellules tumorales. Nous avons effectivement démontré qu’une expression de l’IDO est induite chez les cellules tumorales humaines, suite à une interaction avec des TIIC. Cette induction indépendante du contact cellulaire résulte principalement de l’interféron-gamma (IFN-g) produit par les lymphocytes T activés, mais est régulée à la baisse par l’interleukine (IL)-13. De plus, la fludarabine utilisée comme agent chimiothérapeutique inhibe l’induction de l’IDO chez les cellules tumorales en réponse aux lymphocytes T activés. Cette observation pourrait avoir des conséquences importantes en clinique sachant qu’une forte proportion d’échantillons cliniques provenant de tumeurs humaines exprime l’IDO. Enfin, les lymphocytes B, qui sont retrouvés également dans certaines tumeurs et qui interagissent étroitement avec les lymphocytes T, sont aussi susceptibles à une induction transcriptionnelle et traductionnelle de l’IDO. Cette enzyme est cependant produite sous une forme inactive dans les lymphocytes B, ce qui rend peu probable l’utilisation de l’IDO par les lymphocytes B comme mécanisme pour freiner la réponse immunitaire. Nos travaux apportent des informations importantes quant à la régulation de l’expression de la molécule immunosuppressive IDO dans les cellules cancéreuses. Ils démontrent que l’expression de l’IDO est influencée par la nature des cytokines présentes dans le microenvironnement tumoral. De plus son expression est inhibée par la fludarabine, un agent utilisé pour le traitement de certains cancers. Ces données devraient être prises en considération dans la planification de futurs essais immunothérapeutiques, et pourraient avoir un impact sur les réponses cliniques anti-tumorales. / The immune system is under tight control to avoid inappropriate and excessive immunological responses. Many mechanisms allow the maintenance of peripheral tolerance and mediate attenuation of the immune response after pathogen clearance. Such mechanisms are also exploited by tumors, thereby favoring their escape from assault by the immune system. These immunosuppressive mechanisms hamper host natural immune responses against tumor cells, but also represent an obstacle to the successful clinical manipulation of the immune system in attempts to generate an anti-tumor response through immunotherapy. One immune escape mechanism used by tumors is the production of enzymes responsible for amino acid metabolism, amongst which indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is of major importance. IDO degrades tryptophan, thus leading to its depletion from intracellular pools and local microenvironments. This culminates in multi-pronged negative effects on T lymphocytes neighboring IDO-expressing cells, notably on proliferation, function and survival. The regulation of IDO expression has been largely studied in antigen-presenting cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells, but its regulation in human tumor cells must still be characterized. We hypothesized that different factors produced by tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TIIC) regulate IDO expression in tumor cells. Accordingly, we have demonstrated that IDO expression is induced in human tumor cells upon interaction with TIIC. This induction is cell contact-independent, and results mainly from interferon-gamma (IFN-g) produced by activated T lymphocytes, while being antagonised by interleukin (IL)-13. Moreover, the chemotherapeutic agent fludarabine inhibits activated T lymphocyte-dependent IDO induction in tumor cells. This observation could have major clinical consequences, considering the large proportion of human cancer clinical samples expressing IDO. Finally, B lymphocytes, which interact closely with T lymphocytes and are found infiltrating human tumors, are also susceptible to transcriptional and translational IDO induction. This enzyme is however produced in an inactive form, suggesting that B lymphocytes do not exploit this mechanism to impede the immune response. In conclusion, our work brings crucial information on the regulation of the immunosuppressive molecule IDO in human tumor cells. We demonstrate that IDO expression is dependent on the nature of cytokines present in the tumor microenvironment. Furthermore, its expression is inhibited by fludarabine, a compound used to treat some types of cancer. These data should be taken into consideration in planning future immunotherapy trials and could impact anti-tumor clinical responses.