Aims: To provide 12-month prevalence and disability burden estimates of a broad range of mental and neurological disorders in the European Union (EU) and to compare these findings to previous estimates. Referring to our previous 2005 review, improved up-to-date data for the enlarged EU on a broader range of disorders than previously covered are needed for basic, clinical and public health research and policy decisions and to inform about the estimated number of persons affected in the EU. Method: Stepwise multi-method approach, consisting of systematic literature reviews, reanalyses of existing data sets, national surveys and expert consultations. Studies and data from all member states of the European Union (EU-27) plus Switzerland, Iceland and Norway were included. Supplementary information about neurological disorders is provided, although methodological constraints prohibited the derivation of overall prevalence estimates for mental and neurological disorders. Disease burden was measured by disability adjusted life years (DALY). Results: Prevalence: It is estimated that each year 38.2% of the EU population suffers from a mental disorder. Adjusted for age and comorbidity, this corresponds to 164.8 million persons affected. Compared to 2005 (27.4%) this higher estimate is entirely due to the inclusion of 14 new disorders also covering childhood/adolescence as well as the elderly. The estimated higher number of persons affected (2011: 165 m vs. 2005: 82 m) is due to coverage of childhood and old age populations, new disorders and of new EU membership states. The most frequent disorders are anxiety disorders (14.0%), insomnia (7.0%), major depression (6.9%), somatoform (6.3%), alcohol and drug dependence (> 4%), ADHD (5%) in the young, and dementia (1–30%, depending on age). Except for substance use disorders and mental retardation, there were no substantial cultural or country variations. Although many sources, including national health insurance programs, reveal increases in sick leave, early retirement and treatment rates due to mental disorders, rates in the community have not increased with a few exceptions (i.e. dementia). There were also no consistent indications of improvements with regard to low treatment rates, delayed treatment provision and grossly inadequate treatment. Disability: Disorders of the brain and mental disorders in particular, contribute 26.6% of the total all cause burden, thus a greater proportion as compared to other regions of the world. The rank order of the most disabling diseases differs markedly by gender and age group; overall, the four most disabling single conditions were: depression, dementias, alcohol use disorders and stroke. Conclusion: In every year over a third of the total EU population suffers from mental disorders. The true size of “disorders of the brain” including neurological disorders is even considerably larger. Disorders of the brain are the largest contributor to the all cause morbidity burden as measured by DALY in the EU. No indications for increasing overall rates of mental disorders were found nor of improved care and treatment since 2005; less than one third of all cases receive any treatment, suggesting a considerable level of unmet needs. We conclude that the true size and burden of disorders of the brain in the EU was significantly underestimated in the past. Concerted priority action is needed at all levels, including substantially increased funding for basic, clinical and public health research in order to identify better strategies for improved prevention and treatment for disorders of the brain as the core health challenge of the 21st century.

Background: The spectrum of disorders of the brain is large, covering hundreds of disorders that are listed in either the mental or neurological disorder chapters of the established international diagnostic classification systems. These disorders have a high prevalence as well as short- and long-term impairments and disabilities. Therefore they are an emotional, financial and social burden to the patients, their families and their social network. In a 2005 landmark study, we estimated for the first time the annual cost of 12 major groups of disorders of the brain in Europe and gave a conservative estimate of €386 billion for the year 2004. This estimate was limited in scope and conservative due to the lack of sufficiently comprehensive epidemiological and/or economic data on several important diagnostic groups. We are now in a position to substantially improve and revise the 2004 estimates. In the present report we cover 19 major groups of disorders, 7 more than previously, of an increased range of age groups and more cost items. We therefore present much improved cost estimates. Our revised estimates also now include the new EU member states, and hence a population of 514 million people. Aims: To estimate the number of persons with defined disorders of the brain in Europe in 2010, the total cost per person related to each disease in terms of direct and indirect costs, and an estimate of the total cost per disorder and country. Methods: The best available estimates of the prevalence and cost per person for 19 groups of disorders of the brain (covering well over 100 specific disorders) were identified via a systematic review of the published literature. Together with the twelve disorders included in 2004, the following range of mental and neurologic groups of disorders is covered: addictive disorders, affective disorders, anxiety disorders, brain tumor, childhood and adolescent disorders (developmental disorders), dementia, eating disorders, epilepsy, mental retardation, migraine, multiple sclerosis, neuromuscular disorders, Parkinson's disease, personality disorders, psychotic disorders, sleep disorders, somatoform disorders, stroke, and traumatic brain injury. Epidemiologic panels were charged to complete the literature review for each disorder in order to estimate the 12-month prevalence, and health economic panels were charged to estimate best cost-estimates. A cost model was developed to combine the epidemiologic and economic data and estimate the total cost of each disorder in each of 30 European countries (EU27 + Iceland, Norway and Switzerland). The cost model was populated with national statistics from Eurostat to adjust all costs to 2010 values, converting all local currencies to Euro, imputing costs for countries where no data were available, and aggregating country estimates to purchasing power parity adjusted estimates for the total cost of disorders of the brain in Europe 2010. Results: The total cost of disorders of the brain was estimated at €798 billion in 2010. Direct costs constitute the majority of costs (37% direct healthcare costs and 23% direct non-medical costs) whereas the remaining 40% were indirect costs associated with patients' production losses. On average, the estimated cost per person with a disorder of the brain in Europe ranged between €285 for headache and €30,000 for neuromuscular disorders. The European per capita cost of disorders of the brain was €1550 on average but varied by country. The cost (in billion €PPP 2010) of the disorders of the brain included in this study was as follows: addiction: €65.7; anxiety disorders: €74.4; brain tumor: €5.2; child/adolescent disorders: €21.3; dementia: €105.2; eating disorders: €0.8; epilepsy: €13.8; headache: €43.5; mental retardation: €43.3; mood disorders: €113.4; multiple sclerosis: €14.6; neuromuscular disorders: €7.7; Parkinson's disease: €13.9; personality disorders: €27.3; psychotic disorders: €93.9; sleep disorders: €35.4; somatoform disorder: €21.2; stroke: €64.1; traumatic brain injury: €33.0. It should be noted that the revised estimate of those disorders included in the previous 2004 report constituted €477 billion, by and large confirming our previous study results after considering the inflation and population increase since 2004. Further, our results were consistent with administrative data on the health care expenditure in Europe, and comparable to previous studies on the cost of specific disorders in Europe. Our estimates were lower than comparable estimates from the US. Discussion: This study was based on the best currently available data in Europe and our model enabled extrapolation to countries where no data could be found. Still, the scarcity of data is an important source of uncertainty in our estimates and may imply over- or underestimations in some disorders and countries. Even though this review included many disorders, diagnoses, age groups and cost items that were omitted in 2004, there are still remaining disorders that could not be included due to limitations in the available data. We therefore consider our estimate of the total cost of the disorders of the brain in Europe to be conservative. In terms of the health economic burden outlined in this report, disorders of the brain likely constitute the number one economic challenge for European health care, now and in the future. Data presented in this report should be considered by all stakeholder groups, including policy makers, industry and patient advocacy groups, to reconsider the current science, research and public health agenda and define a coordinated plan of action of various levels to address the associated challenges. Recommendations: Political action is required in light of the present high cost of disorders of the brain. Funding of brain research must be increased; care for patients with brain disorders as well as teaching at medical schools and other health related educations must be quantitatively and qualitatively improved, including psychological treatments. The current move of the pharmaceutical industry away from brain related indications must be halted and reversed. Continued research into the cost of the many disorders not included in the present study is warranted. It is essential that not only the EU but also the national governments forcefully support these initiatives.

Background: Although it is well established that chronic somatic diseases are significantly associated with a wide range of psychopathology, it remains unclear to what extent subjects with chronic somatic diseases are at increased risk of experiencing mental disorders. The present epidemiological study investigates age- and sex-adjusted 12-month prevalence rates of mental disorders in patients with cancer, and musculoskeletal, cardiovascular and respiratory tract diseases, based on comprehensive physicians’ diagnoses and compared with physically healthy probands. Methods: Prevalence rates were calculated from two large epidemiological surveys. These studies investigated inpatients and patients from the general population with cancer (n = 174) and musculoskeletal (n = 1,416), cardiovascular (n = 915) and respiratory tract diseases (n = 453) as well as healthy controls (n = 1,083). The prevalence rates were based on the Munich Composite International Diagnostic Interview, a standardized interview for the assessment of mental disorders. Results: Prevalence rates were very similar for inpatients (43.7%) and patients from the general population (42.2%). The adjusted odds ratios (OR) of patients with chronic somatic diseases were significantly elevated for mental disorders in comparison with healthy probands (OR: 2.2). Mood, anxiety and somatoform disorders were most frequent. The prevalence rates did not differ significantly between the somatic index diseases. The number of somatic diseases per patient had a higher association with mental disorders. Conclusions: There is a strong relationship between chronic somatic diseases and mental disorders. A future task is to improve the care of mental disorders in patients with chronic physical illness, specifically with multimorbid conditions.

Background: Over the past decades the public health relevance of mental health conditions in children and adolescents has been of growing concern. However, so far no detailed epidemiological data has been available for a representative national sample in Germany. Objectives: The present paper reports prevalence rates of general and specific mental health problems among children and adolescents in Germany and describes the link between symptoms and impairment as well as the treatment situation. Methods: The mental health module (BELLA study) examines mental health problems in a representative sub-sample of 2,863 families with children aged 7–17 from the National Health Interview and Examination Survey among Children and Adolescents (KiGGS). Mental health problems were determined using the extended version of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ). Further standardised screening measures were employed to screen for anxiety disorders (SCARED), conduct disorder (CBCL), attention deficit-/ hyperactivity disorder (FBBHKS, Conners’ Scale) and depressive disorders (CES-DC). Furthermore, substance abuse and suicidal tendencies were assessed. Health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and health care use were determined. Results Overall, 14.5% of the children and adolescents aged 7–17 fulfilled the criteria for at least one specific mental health problem associated with impairment, or had an overall mental health problem indicated by an abnormal SDQ score and present impairment. However, high comorbidity was found in the children concerned. Symptoms of overall mental health problems were present in 8.6% of the children and 6.6% of the adolescents. This number was reduced to prevalence rates of 6.3 and 4.9% when additional impairment was taken as a criterion. Irrespective of the type of disorder, fewer than half of the children affected were reported as receiving treatment. However, for those suffering from mental health problems, large impairments in HRQoL were observed. Conclusions: The observed prevalence of mental health problems as well as their large impact on well-being and functioning calls for early prevention. This is especially important with regard to the large decrease in HRQoL in the children and adolescents affected.

Background: A younger age at onset of use of a specific substance is a well-documented risk-factor for a substance use disorder (SUD) related to that specific substance. However, the cross-substance relationship between a younger age at onset of alcohol use (AU) and nicotine use (NU) and the risk of cannabis use disorders (CUD) in adolescence and early adulthood remains unclear. Aims: To identify the sequence of and latency between initial AU/NU and initial cannabis use (CU). To investigate whether younger age at AU- and NU-onset is associated with any and earlier CU-onset and a higher risk of transition from first CU to CUD, taking into account externalizing disorders (ED) and parental substance use disorders as putative influential factors. Methods: Prospective-longitudinal community study with N = 3021 subjects (baseline age 14–24) and up to four assessment waves over up to ten years with additional direct parental and family history information. Substance use and CUD were assessed with the DSM-IV/M-CIDI. Results: Most subjects with CU reported AU (99%) and NU (94%). Among users of both substances, 93% reported AU prior to CU (87% for NU). After adjustment for ED and parental substance use disorders younger age at AU-onset was associated with any CU. Younger age at NU-onset was associated with earlier CU initiation. Younger age at AU- and NU-onset was not associated with a higher risk of CUD. Conclusions: The cross-substance relevance of younger age at first AU and NU for the risk of CUD is limited to early CU involvement.

Im Rahmen einer Reanalyse von vier Erhebungen an jugendlichen und erwachsenen Probanden in den neuen und alten Bundesländern in den Jahren 1990 bis 1991/92 wurden Angaben zu Indikatoren für Depressivität, Angst/psychosomatische Beschwerden und Substanzgebrauch in Ost- und Westdeutschland verglichen. Zum Zeitpunkt der Untersuchungen gab es im Gegensatz zu der von einzelnen Autoren angeführten Erwartung keine eindeutigen Hinweise auf eine insgesamt erhöhte psychiatrische Morbidität in den neuen Bundesländern. Depressive Symptome und der Gebrauch von illegalen Drogen und Medikamenten sind durchgängig in den alten Bundesländern häufíger nachzuweisen als in den neuen Bundesländern. Allenfalls ergaben sich für die Stichproben Ost für einzelne depressionstypische sowie einzelne psychovegetative Symptome und für Alkoholgebrauch statistisch signifikant erhöhte Werte. Da keine Diagnosekriterien erhoben wurden, muβ die Aussagekraft der Daten dahingehend eingeschränkt werden, daβ lediglich Indikatoren für psychische Auffälligkeiten erhoben wurden.

Hintergrund: Ein signifikanter Anteil der Patienten mit einer chronischen körperlichen Erkrankung weist eine komorbide psychische Störung auf. Ob und in welchem Ausmaß sich die Prävalenzraten psychischer Störungen bei Patienten mit einer chronischen Erkrankung von denen der Allgemeinbevölkerung unterscheiden, ist bislang noch kaum untersucht. Fragestellung: Die vorliegende epidemiologische Studie untersucht geschlechts- und altersadjustierte 4-Wochen, 12-Monats- und Lebenszeitprävalenzen psychischer Störungen bei Rehabilitationspatienten mit muskuloskelettalen und kardiovaskulären Erkrankungen im Vergleich zu Prävalenzraten der Allgemeinbevölkerung. Methode: Die Daten der drei Stichproben (N = 4192) basieren jeweils auf einem zweistufigen, epidemiologischen Untersuchungsansatz mit einer schriftlichen Befragung der Patienten bzw. Probanden zu ihrem psychischen Befinden (GHQ-12; M-CIDI-S) und einem anschließenden Interview (M-CIDI) bei einem randomisiert ausgewählten Teil der Gesamtstichprobe. Ergebnisse: Mit adjustierten Lebenszeitprävalenzen von 59.3 % (OR: 1.6) und 56.2 % (OR: 1.4) weisen die Patienten mit einer muskuloskelettalen und kardiovaskulären Erkrankung im Vergleich zur Allgemeinbevölkerung (47.9 %) eine deutlich erhöhte Prävalenz psychischer Störungen auf. Am häufigsten sind affektive Störungen (22.5 % bis 34.9%) und Angststörungen (18.4 % bis 33.8 %). Schlussfolgerung: Der im Vergleich zur Allgemeinbevölkerung deutliche Zusammenhang zwischen chronischen körperlichen Erkrankungen und psychischen Störungen verdeutlicht die Bedeutsamkeit einer verstärkten Diagnostik und Behandlung komorbider psychischer Störungen bei chronisch erkrankten Patienten. / Background: A significant part of patients with chronic diseases have comorbid mental disorders. However, by now it is nearly unexplored if and to what extend the prevalence rates of mental disorders in patients with chronic diseases differ from the rates of the general population. Objective: The present epidemiologic study investigates sex- and age-adjusted 4-week, 12-months, and lifetime prevalence rates of mental disorders in inpatients with musculoskeletal and cardiovascular diseases compared to prevalence rates of the general population. Methods: In each sample (N = 4192), the data based on a two-stage epidemiologic design. The first stage entailed the use of a screening questionnaire for mental disorders (GHQ-12; M-CIDI-S). The second stage consisted of an interview (M-CIDI) of a randomised part of the sample. Results: The adjusted lifetime prevalence in both clinical samples (musculoskeletal: 59.3 %, OR 1.6; cardiovaskular: 56.2 %, OR 1.4) is high compared to the rate of the general population (47.9 %). Affective disorders (22.5 % to 34.9 %) and anxiety disorders (18.4% to 33.8 %) are the most common disorders. Conclusions: Compared to the general population there is a clear correlation between chronic diseases and mental disorders, that shows the importance of an improved diagnostic and treatment of patients suffering from comorbid mental disorders.

Die klinische Forschung zu Häufigkeit und Krankheitslast psychischer Störungen ist meist in mehrerer Hinsicht nicht repräsentativ. Insbesondere die Tatsache, dass die untersuchten Patienten sich von sich aus in Behandlung begeben, bedeutet eine gewisse Selektion (z.B. überdurchschnittlich motivierte). Mit wie vielen Fällen haben wir es aber zu tun, wenn man auch diejenigen berücksichtigt, die kein aktives Hilfesuch-Verhalten zeigen? Und wie hoch ist die in klinischen Stichproben offensichtliche individuelle Krankheitslast psychischer Störungen auf einer gesellschaftlichen Ebene – auch im Vergleich mit körperlichen Erkrankungen – einzuschätzen? Ansätze für solche Hochrechnungen und die Abschätzung von Häufigkeit, Störungskosten und Behandlungsbedarf psychischer Störungen müssen epidemiologisch anhand von Daten aus der Allgemeinbevölkerung geklärt werden. Die vorliegende Habilitationsschrift basiert auf Publikationen, die in meiner Arbeitsgruppe „Epidemiologie und Versorgungsforschung“ am Lehrstuhl für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie zwischen 2001 und 2006 entstanden sind. Die entsprechenden Befunde und Implikationen wurden und werden nicht nur in der Klinischen Psychologie, sondern auch in Nachbardisziplinen (z.B. Psychiatrie, Epidemiologie, Occupational Health Psychology, Gesundheitsökonomie, Versorgungsforschung) sowie in der nicht-wissenschaftlichen Öffentlichkeit (z.B. Gesundheitsberichterstattung, Versorgungsplanung) zur Kenntnis genommen und zitiert. In den vorgestellten Arbeiten habe ich zunächst – erstmals für Deutschland – auf der Grundlage bevölkerungsbezogener Daten bundesrepräsentative Befunde zur Verbreitung psychischer Störungen herausgestellt (z.B. Jacobi, Wittchen et al., 2004; Jacobi, Hoyer & Wittchen, 2004; Jacobi, Klose & Wittchen, 2004). Zum zweiten beschäftigte ich mich mit der internationalen Befundlage, indem ich mich an der Koordination eines internationalen und multidisziplinären Forscher-Netzwerkes beteiligte, das eine umfassende Abschätzung der Größenordnung im Sinne von Verbreitung und Kosten für die EU vorgenommen hat (Wittchen & Jacobi, 2005). Vor diesem Hintergrund habe ich zum dritten ausgewählte Fragestellungen zum Zusammenhang zwischen psychischen Störungen und körperlichen Erkrankungen bzw. zur Stärke und zu Konsequenzen solcher Komorbidität verfolgt (z.B. Goodwin, Jacobi & Thefeld, 2003; Sareen, Jacobi et al., 2006). Die Habilitationsschrift verdeutlicht nicht nur die eminente Größenordnung und Krankheitslast psychischer Störungen (z.B. reduzierte Lebensqualität, Beeinträchtigungen, Krankheitskosten, Verschlechterung des gesundheitlichen Outcomes bei körperlichen Erkrankungen). Sie eröffnet auch neue wissenschaftliche Perspektiven ihrer Erforschung, z.B. im Hinblick auf Prävention und Behandlungsbedarf, oder hinsichtlich der Verschränkungen mit Prozessen körperlicher Morbidität. / This Habilitation-Thesis, based on 10 peer-reviewed publications (2001-2006), presents findings on size and burden of mental disorders in the community. First, following an introductory discussion of methodological aspects in epidemiological studies, an overview of the prevalence of mental disorders in Germany and Europe is given (Part A). As Examples for socio-economic determinants of mental disorders, some analyses on gender differences and a comparison between West and East Germany are presented (Part B). Further, it is shown that mental disorders are costly (in terms of disability adjusted life years as well as in terms of direct and indirect monetary burden) (Part C). This refers also to the interplay between mental disorders and somatic conditions: comorbid cases show significantly poorer outcomes (reduced health related quality of life, work loss and disability, help-seeking behaviour) (Part D).

In der vorliegenden Untersuchung wurden in die Analyse von Belastungs-Beanspruchungs-Bewältigungsprozessen im Lehrerberuf neben individuellen und beruflichen auch familiäre Einflussfaktoren einbezogen. Ziel war es, sowohl Risikofaktoren der Dienstunfähigkeit als auch Protektivfaktoren der Dienstfähigkeit für die Berufgruppe zu ermitteln. In einer vergleichenden Querschnittsstudie wurden hierzu 50-60-jährige dienstunfähige und dienstfähige Lehrerinnen und Lehrer verschiedener Schulformen betrachtet. Im Ergebnis logistischer Regressionsanalysen stellten sich psychosomatische Beschwerden, Teilzeitbeschäftigung, das Aufsuchen professioneller Hilfe und individuelle Bewältigungsstile als Risikofaktoren der Dienstunfähigkeit bei Lehrkräften dar. Anhand von Strukturgleichungsmodellen konnten psychische Stabilität, konstruktiv-aktives Coping, Arbeitszufriedenheit, soziale Unterstützung durch die Schulleitung und positives Schulklima als Protektivfaktoren der Dienstfähigkeit bei Lehrkräften identifiziert werden. Klassifizierungsanalysen zeigten, dass dienstfähige Lehrkräfte mit geringer gesundheitlicher Beanspruchung und guter Arbeitsfähigkeit durch eine hohe Arbeitszufriedenheit, ausgeprägtes positives Coping und geringe Rollenkonflikte an der Schnittstelle Beruf-Familie gekennzeichnet waren.

Jeder Vierte erleidet im Laufe seines Lebens einen Verkehrsunfall. Obwohl psychische Folgen verbreitet und vielfältig sind, bleiben sie oft unbeachtet oder ihnen wird erst Aufmerksamkeit zuteil, wenn wenn das Leiden oder die Beeinträchtigung durch sie zu stark werden oder die Symptomatik sich längst chronifiziert hat. Am Lehrstuhl für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie der TU Dresden wurde in Zusammenarbeit mit der Christoph-Dornier-Stiftung für Klinische Psychologie in Dresden ein Forschungsprojekt zu psychischer Traumatisierung nach Verkehrsunfällen durchgeführt. Schwerpunkt dieser Studie war es, herauszufinden, inwieweit psychische Beeinträchtigungen wenige Tage nach einem Verkehrsunfall sowie 3 und 6 Monate danach auftreten und welche auslösenden bzw. aufrechterhaltenden Faktoren für die psychischen Beeinträchtigungen zu finden sind. Zu diesem Zweck wurden in einer Unfallklinik Patienten mit einer Fragebogenbatterie untersucht, die dort nach einem Verkehrsunfall eingeliefert worden waren. Die Auftretenshäufigkeit von posttraumatischer Belastungssymptomatik steigt über den Untersuchungszeitraum hinweg leicht an, dies gilt sowohl für klinische als auch subklinische Symptomatik. Interessant sind hier v.a. die verschiedenen Verlaufstypen. Die Gedanken-kontrollstrategien "Ablenkung" und "Sorgen" scheinen beim Umgang mit auftretenden Intrusionen eine relevante Rolle im Zusammenhang mit der posttraumatischen Belastungssymptomatik spielen. Weiterhin zeigte sich, daß Variablen wie die subjektiv wahrgenommene Kontrollierbarkeit der Unfallsituation oder die Beschäftigung mit der Frage "Warum gerade ich?" Einfluß auf die Entwicklung posttraumatischer Symptomatik ausüben. Die Ergebnisse der Studie haben mehrere Implikationen: Erstens konnte repliziert werden, daß posttraumatische Belastungssymptomatik nach Verkehrsunfällen ein relevantes Problem ist, das nicht einfach ignoriert werden darf. Zweitens konnten Erkenntnisse über den längsschnittlichen Verlauf der Symptomatik bereitgestellt werden, die eine Früherkennung von potentiellen Betroffenen näher rücken läßt. Drittens und letztens konnte die wichtige Rolle der kognitiven Variablen bei der Entstehung einer Posttraumatischen Belastungsstörung nach Verkehrsunfällen untermauert werden.