Several studies have concluded that the use of nurses’ time and energy is often not optimized. Given widespread migration of nurses from developing to developed countries, it is important for human resource planning to know whether nursing education in developing countries is associated with more exaggerated patterns of inefficiency. Objectives First, to describe nurses’ reports on tasks below their skill level. Second, to examine the association between nurses’ migratory status (domestically trained nurse or foreign trained nurse from a developing country) and reports on these tasks. Design The Registered Nurse Forecasting Study used a cross-sectional quantitative research design to gather data from 33,731 nurses (62% response rate) in 486 hospitals in Belgium, England, Finland, Germany, Greece, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. Methods For this analysis, nurse-reported information on migratory status and tasks below their skill level performed during their last shift was used. Random effects models estimated the effect of nurses’ migratory status on reports of these tasks. Results 832 nurses were trained in a developing country (2.5% of total sample). Across countries, a high proportion of both domestically trained and foreign trained nurses from developing countries reported having performed tasks below their skill level during their last shift. After adjusting for nurses’ type of last shift worked, years of experience, and level of education, there remained a pronounced overall effect of being a foreign trained nurse from a developing country and an increase in reports of tasks below skill level performed during the last shift. Conclusion The findings suggest that there remains much room for improvement to optimize the use of nurses’ time and energy. Special attention should be given to raising the professional level of practice of foreign trained nurses from developing countries. Further research is needed to understand the influence of professional practice standards, skill levels of foreign trained nurses from developing countries and values attached to these tasks resulting from previous work experiences in their home countries. This will allow us to better understand the conditions under which foreign trained nurses from developing countries can optimally contribute to professional nursing practice in developed country contexts. / Dr McIntosh is a member of the the RN4CAST Consortium.

BakgrundTransitionen från student till yrkesverksam sjuksköterska kan vara svår och utmanande och än mer utmanande som ny inom akutsjukvården. Författarna kommer beskriva sjuksköterskans profession, vad det innebär att vara nyexaminerad sjuksköterska samt vad som menas med transition. Även begreppet akutsjukvård och dess olika kontexter kommer beskrivas. Vidare beskriver författarna Duchschers (2008) transitionsteori. SyfteAtt sammanställa kunskap om nyexaminerade sjuksköterskors upplevelser av att arbeta inom akutsjukvård. MetodStrukturerad litteraturstudie med inslag av grunderna för systematisk litteraturöversikt. ResultatSammanställningen av artiklarna i denna litteraturstudie resulterade i tre kategorier Första tiden i yrket, Vikten av support och Upplevelsen av arbetsmiljön. Samt åtta subkategorier Upplevelsen av transition, Introduktion på arbetsplatsen, Utveckling inom professionen, Upplevelsen av teamwork, Kommunikation, Behov av stöd, Brist på erfaren personal och Arbetsbelastning. SlutsatsTransitionen från student till sjuksköterska kan vara utmanande på flera sätt, både inom yrkesrollen och privat. Minskad arbetsbelastning och en adekvat introduktion skulle kunna hjälpa till i transitionen från student till yrkesverksam sjuksköterska. Viljan av utveckling och skapande av erfarenheter var stärkande för nyexaminerade sjuksköterskor i tron på sin kompetens. / BackgroundThe transition from being a student nurse to becoming a registered nurse can be hard and challenging, even more challenging by being new in the emergency care. The writers will describe nurses’ profession, what it means to be a newly graduated nurse and also explain transition. Further on the writers will describe the concept emergency care and the different context where emergency care can occur. The writers will also describe Duchscher (2008) transition theory. AimTo compile knowledge of newly graduated nurses´ experiences of working in acute caresetting. MethodA review of literature with the basics from a systematic review. ResultsThis review resulted in three categories Early in the profession, The importance of support and Experience of the work environments. Eight subcategories were identified these were Experience of transition, Introduction in the workplace, development within the profession, Teamwork experience, Communication, Need for support, Lack of experienced staff and Workload. ConclusionsThe transition from student nurse to registered nurse can be challenging in many ways, both within the profession as well as the private life. Reduced workload and an adequate introduction could help in the transition from student to professional nurse. The will of development and the hunt for experiences were empowering for the newly graduated nurses in the beliefs in their own competence.

The purpose of the study was to analyse if the two year upgrading programme done at Malawi College of Health Sciences attended by Nurse Midwife Technicians (NMTs) is able to improve the competencies, knowledge, skills and attitude of the graduates when providing comprehensive nursing and midwifery care. The main objectives of this study were • to determine the effectiveness of the Upgrading Diploma in Nursing and Midwifery programme in preparing the competencies of State Registered Nurse Midwifes (SRNMs) • to make recommendations on the training of Upgrading Diploma in Nursing and Midwifery programme The researcher used a quantitative, exploratory, descriptive design. A questionnaire with closed and open-ended questions was used to collect data from SRNMs who completed the upgrading programme. The findings indicated that the upgrading programme has a significant impact to improve the competencies of the NMTs to work as SRNMs. / Health Studies / M.A. (Health Studies)

This study investigated the registered nurses' perceptions of the bureaucratic view of power in health care services in the Tshwane metropolitan region. The study further sought to describe how power affects the role of registered nurses in an organisation that is perceived to be predominantly bureaucratic in its' approach to management. A quantitative descriptive exploratory approach was adopted. Data was drawn from 121 respondents by random distribution of questionnaires to three selected health care services in the Tshwane metropolitan region. The findings revealed that registered nurses were largely divided in their perception of the bureaucratic view of power in health care services. Almost half of the respondents indicated that great strides had been taken by organisations in transforming health care services in accordance with the White Paper (1997) on Transformation of the Health System in South Africa and the recommendations of the 2001 Health Summit. The others indicated that registered nurses still needed to break out of the restraints of their dependant role towards taking ownership of health care services by equally bearing the burden of the organisation with management. / Health Studies / M.A.(Health Studies)

The aim of the study was to investigate motivation, job satisfaction and attitudes of nurses in the public health services of Botswana. The objective was to discover how nurses felt about a wide range of variables in their work environment and ultimately to distil them into what they conceived as the mainstay motivators, job satisfiers and positive attitudes. The non pariel (unrivalled, unique) role of the government in creating both the hardware and the software of national health services was acknowledged and recognised with a particular reference to the primacy it placed on developing the human resources in the form of nurses, in order to realize the goals of administering the public health services efficiently and effectively. It was noted that nurses were the change agents and the axis in promoting quality standards of healthcare but in partnership with the government, which must be seen to be responsive and proactive in discharging its fiduciary responsibilities, in respect of both the content and the context of nurses’ occupational ambience. For the purposes of constructing a database from which both the government and the nurses can draw, the most salient thematic details of the theories of motivation, job satisfaction and attitudes were studied and examined and were used as a scaffolding for the empirical survey of nurses. Nine hundred questionnaires were distributed to both registered and enrolled nurses with a minimum of two years work experience in the public health sector and 702 of these were returned constituting a return rate of 78%. The findings indicated that a majority of nurses enjoyed job satisfaction in certain areas of their work namely autonomy, participating in decision-making, choice of type of nursing, change of wards or departments or work units, interpersonal relationships amongst nurses themselves and between nurses and their supervisors. Nurses also perceived the hospital as an environment in which they could continually learn and they were moreover satisfied with the nursing job or the work itself. The other end of the spectrum revealed an overwhelming majority of 92.2% of nurses who were dissatisfied with the level of pay and 88.5% who were not happy with the fringe benefits including the provision of accommodation. Working conditions were viewed as generally disliked by 67.3% of the nurses. Low pay, workload, lack of viii recognition for outstanding performance and or delayed promotional chances were singled out as being particularly disliked by 67.2%, 64.9%, 42.6% and 44.4% of the nurses respectively. Interviews held with 31 nurses yielded similar results. The research further showed that the most important motivators to nurses were dominated by competitive salary which was mentioned by 80.9% of the respondents, attractive or sufficient working conditions which were stated by 71.2% of the nurses, opportunity for continuous education which was rated by 63.8% of the nursing candidates, reduced workload which was claimed by 59.3% of the nursing cadres, opportunity for the recognition of outstanding performance and opportunity for promotion which were scored by 54.1% and 53.4% of the nurse respectively. Job satisfiers were also represented by competitive salary which received 76.1% of the nurses’ votes. Risk allowance occupied the second position with 69.1% and competitive working conditions were awarded a third ranking by 68.2% of the nurses. Those nurses who derived job satisfaction from the fact of each nursing shift being manned by an adequate number of nurses accounted for 63.1% of the sample. Competitive fringe benefits attracted 60.1% of the nurses. Opportunity to attend workshops and the need for high morale in nursing team-work were chosen as job satisfiers by 53.7% and 49.6% of the nurses respectively. In the section on recommendations the government was exhorted to invoke corrective or remedial measures in view of the detailed exegesis of the satisfactions and dissatisfactions in the nurses’ work environment and the ensuing problematique (doubtful, questionable) of raising the standards of health care in the public health services. Living up to these sanguine expectations should be the cherished longterm vision of the government if it is to meet and quench the soaring aspirations of its modernizing society for quality health care delivery and the escalating needs of the nurses. / Public Administration / D.P.A.

Avhandlingens övergripande syfte var att klarlägga sjuksköterskors erfarenheter av sjuksköterskeprofessionen avseende omvårdnad, handledning och utveckling. Avhand‐lingen innefattar två kvalitativa (I, II) och två kvantitativa (III, IV) studier. Femton sjuksköterskor intervjuades sex år efter examen (I, II). Sjuksköterskorna var bland de första i Sverige med treårig sjuksköterskeutbildning. Handledare till sjuksköterske‐studenter i verksamhetsförlagd utbildning besvarade ett frågeformulär om handledning före/efter införd handledningsmodell (III, IV). I handledningsstudierna deltog 113 sjuksköterskor år 2000 (III) och 109 (III) respektive 142 (IV) sjuksköterskor år 2006. Svarsfrekvensen motsvarade ca 71% (III, IV). Innehållsanalys (I, II) och statistiska beräk‐ningar (III, IV) utfördes. Analysen visade att sjuksköterskor med treårig sjuksköterskeutbildning och sex års erfarenhet hade hittat sin nisch (II). Ingen ångrade sitt yrkesval. Många var under‐stimulerade samtidigt som de balanserade mellan påfrestning och stimulans (I) hinder och möjligheter (II). Flertalet var tveksamma till om de skulle orka arbeta fram till pensionsåldern (I, II). Inrättandet av en handledningsmodell som gav stöd till både sjuksköterskestudenter och handledare visade sig vara ett bra sätt i att organisera samverkan mellan handledare och lärare (III). Flertalet handledare var nöjda med det stöd de fått och upplevde säkerhet i handledarrollen (III). Emellertid, sjuksköterskor med och utan specialistutbildning värderade sjuksköterskestudenter olika (IV). Behovet av ett fokuserat lärande visades som ett mönster genom resultaten (I, II, III, IV). Avhandlingen visar genom resultaten att sjuksköterskor verkar i en komplex pro‐fession där det krävs skickliga sjuksköterskor för att klara det arbete sjuksköterskan är satt att sköta. För framgång i omvårdnad, handledning och utveckling är den lärande miljön central. En miljö där teori, praktik, forskning och reflektion vävs samman och där stöd, samverkan och professionell utveckling är ledstjärnor. Avhandlingen visar att en ökad samverkan mellan vårdverksamhet och universitet/högskola är nödvändig för att sjuksköterskeutbildningen och omvårdnadsarbetet skall kunna anpassas till hälso‐ och sjukvårdens ökade krav. Avhandlingens resultat kan användas som grund för fortsatta diskussioner med hänsyn till omvårdnadsvetenskap och beslut kring sjuksköterskans arbete såväl i utbildningssammanhang som i vårdverksamhet. / The overall aim of this thesis was to elucidate Registered Nurses’ (RNs) experiences of the nursing profession regarding nursing, preceptoring and professional development. The thesis includes two qualitative studies (I, II) and two quantitative studies (III, IV). Fifteen RNs were interviewed six years after graduation (I, II). These nurses were among the first in Sweden to graduate from the 3‐year Bachelor programme in nursing. Preceptors for nursing students in clinical education answered a questionnaire regarding experiences of the preceptor role before/after the introduction of a preceptor model (III, IV). In the studies related to preceptoring 113 RNs participated in 2000 (III), and 109 (III) respectively 142 (IV) RNs participated in 2006, with similar response rates of roughly 71% (III, IV). A content analysis (I, II), and statistic analysis (III, IV) were performed. The analysis showed that RNs graduates from the Bachelor programme in nursing, with six years nursing experience, had found their niche (II). None regretted the choice of profession. Several were under stimulated at the same time as they oscillated between strain and stimulation (I) and between obstacles and opportunities (II). The majority thought that growing old in nursing could prove to be difficult (I, II). The introduction of the preceptor model, with its support to both nursing students and preceptors, showed how to organize co‐operation between preceptors and teachers (III) successfully. The majority of the preceptors were satisfied with the support they had received and experienced a feeling of confidence in their role as preceptor (III). However, specialist nurses and non‐specialist‐nurses valued nursing students differently (IV). The necessity of adopting focused learning emerged as a pattern (I, II, III, IV). The results of the thesis show that RNs work in a complex profession that demands skilled nurses to accomplish the tasks they are required to perform. To successful nursing, preceptoring and development the teaching environment is pre‐dominant. It is an environment where theory, practice, research, feedback and reflection are interwoven and where support, co‐operation and professional development are the guiding‐stars. The thesis shows an increased co‐operation between the healthcare organization and university is necessary in order to adapt the nursing education and profession to the ever increasing demands in health care. The results of the thesis are a contribution to continued discussions regarding nursing science and RN’s work from both educational and health care context.

Background When cure is no longer possible, medical care should aim for a transition to palliative care regardless of disease. Patients with incurable cancer are often treated with palliative chemotherapy (PCT), starting with the intent to prolong life and increase quality of life. Eventually, in the late stages of the disease, the patient reaches a transition phase when further PCT neither prolongs life nor adds any predominantly positive effects. Aim of the thesis Study I: To analyse the proportion of patients with incurable cancer who received palliative chemotherapy during the last month of life, and to identify their discriminative characteristics. Study II: To develop a questionnaire assessing performance status in palliative chemotherapy, and to test its psychometric properties. Study III: To explore challenging situations experienced by registered nurses when administering palliative chemotherapy to patients with incurable cancer. Study IV:  To investigate whether routine use of the Performance Status in Palliative Chemotherapy (PSPC) questionnaire in PCT would affect the proportion of patients receiving PCT during the last month of life, hospital admissions, notifications of performance status, documented decisions of ceasing PCT in the medical records, and/or place of death. A secondary aim was to gather registered nurses’ experiences of PSPC in clinical use. Methods In Studies I and IV, information from the medical records of deceased patients with epithelial cancers was used in descriptive analyses of the proportions of patients receiving PCT in counties in northernmost Sweden. A quantitative design was chosen, using non-parametric statistical methods. In Study II, a brief patient-completed questionnaire assessing performance status was developed and psychometrically tested. In Study III, data from research interviews with registered nurses were analysed qualitatively with a narrative thematic approach. Results Studies I and IV showed that about 25% of patients receiving PCT were treated during the last month of life. This group of patients had more hospital admissions, were less likely to die at home, and had fewer instances of documentation of the decision to cease PCT. The questionnaire developed in Study II was shown to have acceptable psychometric qualities such as reliability, validity, and sensitivity to detect deterioration in performance status. Study IV showed that the questionnaire gave nurses valuable information about patients’ performance status. The results also showed that 97% of nurses and 48% of physicians documented their patients’ performance status in the medical records. Study III demonstrated that when nurses administered PCT they considered futile, they could experience dilemmas created by the unforeseeable outcomes of PCT or stemming from insufficient communication between nurses, patients, next-of-kin, and physicians. Conclusions Administration of PCT can create dilemmatic situations for both the patient and medical staff when approaching end-of-life. This is underlined by the finding that some 25% of treated patients received their last round of PCT as late as during the last month of life. The decisions to cease PCT were less likely to be documented for patients who had received PCT within a month before death. Nurses described situations where they felt they were in the middle of the decision-making process regarding whether or not to continue PCT. They found the treatments were given on the authority of someone else; the physician’s recommendation or the patient’s and/or relatives’ request. The unpredictability of PCT was a continuous theme in the work described in this thesis, emphasizing the necessity of individually assessing every patient before PCT in order to minimize the risk of futile treatments. The attempt to develop a reliable and valid questionnaire for systematic assessment of performance status has increased future possibilities to monitor this parameter in PCT when approaching end-of-life. The questionnaire developed as part of this thesis has provided nurses with increased knowledge of patients’ performance status. If routinely used, it may help decrease the proportion of patients receiving PCT during the last month of life, though this remains to be rigorously proven. Further research efforts are needed to progress in the task of optimizing rather than maximizing the use of PCT when approaching end-of-life. / Bakgrund Cytostatikabehandling som ges vid obotlig cancersjukdom kan minska tumörbörda och besvärande symtom som t. ex smärta. Behandlingen ökar livskvalitet och överlevnadstid i många fall och bör därför erbjudas alla patienter som kan ha nytta av den. Dock är cytostatika potenta läkemedel som kan ge besvärliga biverkningar. Diskussionen i många studier pekar på att den förväntade överlevnaden bör överstiga en månad för att behandlingen ska kunna ha avsedd effekt. Då cytostatikabehandling vid obotlig cancersjukdom inte kan bota patienten är det alltid en tidsfråga innan nyttan med behandlingen avtar för att till sist helt upphöra. Fortsatt behandling med cytostatika innebär då risk för enbart negativa effekter i form av ökad trötthet, nedsatt immunförsvar och till och med livsförkortning. Möjligheterna att klara av fortsatt cytostatikabehandling bedöms inför varje behandling med blodprover och klinisk bedömning. På sjukhus utan tjänstgörande onkologspecialist träffar patienten sjuksköterskan som ger behandlingen. Ansvarig läkare kontaktas när provsvar eller något i patientens tillstånd avviker från det vanliga. När sjukdomen framskrider och patientens allmänstillstånd börjar svikta, bör syftet med behandlingen utvärderas och överväganden göras huruvida den ska fortsätta, regimen förändras eller avslutas. Min erfarenhet, ur ett sjuksköterskeperspektiv, av palliativ vård och cytostatikabehandlingar givna till patienter med obotlig cancersjukdom, fick mig att vilja undersöka hur många patienter som behandlas i livets slutskede. Jag ville också ta reda på hur bedömningen av patienten inför behandlingen gick till och om den kunde förbättras, samt hur sjuksköterskan upplevde att ge cytostatikabehandlingar i sent sjukdomsskede. Syften Att utforska andelen patienter med obotlig cancer som behandlas med palliativ cytostatika under sista levnadsmånaden samt att finna utmärkande karakteristika för denna grupp patienter. Att utveckla och psykometriskt testa en kortfattad enkät utformad för bedömning av patientens allmäntillstånd vid palliativ cytostatikabehandling. Att identifiera situationer som sjuksköterskor kan uppleva som utmanande vid cytostatikabehandling av palliativa patienter med cancer. Att undersöka om rutinmässig användning av enkäten utvecklad i studie II påverkat andelen patienter som behandlas med palliativ cytostatika under sista levnadsmånaden, andel sjukhusinläggningar, dokumentation av allmäntillstånd, dokumentation av avslutande av behandling i journal och/eller dödsplats. Metod Alla inkluderade patienter i studierna hade cytostatikabehandlats med anledning av obotlig, epitelial cancer (utgående från organens slemhinneceller) och var 20 år eller äldre.  Deltagande sjuksköterskor arbetade på cytostatikabehandlingsmottagningar/avdelningar. Både pati-enter och sjuksköterskor kom från Jämtland, Västerbotten och/eller Norrbotten. I studie I jämfördes journaldata från avlidna patienter som cytostatikabehandlats under sista levnadsmånaden med dem som avslutat behandlingarna tidigare. I studie II erbjöds patienter att delta i utvecklingen av en enkät som tagits fram för att mäta allmäntillståndet före cytostatikabehandling. I studie III intervjuades sjuksköterskor som arbetar med att ge cytostatika och deras berättelser analyserades med narrativ metod. I studie IV jämfördes journaldata för avlidna patienter som använt enkäten från studie II med matchade kontroller och i tillämpliga frågor data från studie I. Resultat Studie I visade att 23 % av alla patienter som cytostatikabehandlats någon gång under sista året före sin död även fick cytostatikabehandling under sista levnadsmånaden. Studien visade också en samvariation mellan behandling sista levnadsmånaden och fler sjukhusvistelser inom en månad efter sista behandling, färre dokumenterade beslut att avsluta behandlingen samt att färre patienter från denna grupp avled i hemmet. I Studie II konstaterades att den utformade enkäten uppvisade tecken på såväl reliabilitet, validitet som förmåga att detektera när patientens allmäntillstånd försämrades. Studie III visade att palliativa cytostatika kan upplevas som potenta och oförutsägbara läkemedel, som kan skapa dilemman för de sjuksköterskor som genomför behandlingarna när de ges till patienter som är försvagade av sin cancersjukdom. Sjuksköterskorna upplevde att de ibland stod mitt emellan läkare, patienter och närstående inför behandlingsbeslut. Studie IV visade ingen statistiskt säkerställd effekt av rutinmässig monitorering av allmäntillståndet med det i studie II framtagna formuläret. Varken behandling under sista månaden i livet, sjukhusvistelser, dokumenterade beslut att avsluta behandling eller dödsplats påverkades. Däremot rapporterade sjuksköterskorna att formuläret gav dem värdefull information om patientens allmäntillstånd inför behandling. Klinisk nytta för framtiden Fynden i studien kan vara till nytta för alla inblandade i cytostatikabehandlingen; patienten, närstående, sjuksköterskan och läkaren. Särskilt i beslutsprocessen om cytostatikabehandlingen ska fortsättas eller avbrytas. Metoder för att bättre bedöma prognostiska faktorer inför cytostatikabehandling behöver utvecklas ytterligare. I en framtida studie skulle formuläret kunna vidareutvecklas för datoriserad användning så resultaten förs in i patientjournalen, där både sjuksköterska och läkare enklare skulle ha tillgång till dem innan behandlingsbeslut. Slutsatser Behandling med palliativ cytostatika nära livets slutskede kan skapa situationer som upplevs som dilemman, både för patienten och för vårdpersonalen. I studierna behandlades 23-25 % av patienterna med cytostatika under sista levnadsmånaden. Dessa patienter vårdades oftare på sjukhus och färre av dem dog i hemmet. Sjuksköterskorna beskrev att de i vissa fall upplevde sig vara "mitt i mellan" i beslutsprocessen om cytostatikabehandling skulle ges eller inte. Cytostatikabehandlingens oförutsägbarhet visade sig vara ett genomgående tema i avhandlingen. Oförutsägbarheten leder till att individanpassning för varje enskild patient är av största vikt. Försöket till formulärutveckling skulle kunna öka möjligheten att mer objektivt använda allmäntillstånd som en parameter inför behandlingsbeslut när patienten nalkas livets slut. Formuläret visade sig ge sjuksköterskorna värdefull information om patienternas upplevda allmäntillstånd även om denna studie inte visade statistiskt säkerställda skillnader mellan de som använde formuläret och kontrollgruppens patienter. För att ytterligare optimera beslutsfattandet vid palliativ cytostatikabehandling när livets slutskede nalkas krävs fortsatt forskning. / Tausta Parantumattoman syöpäsairauden yhteydessä annettu sytostaattihoito voi vähentää kasvainkuormaa ja haittaavia oireita kuten esim. kipua. Monissa tapauksissa hoito parantaa potilaiden elämänlaatua ja antaa lisää elinaikaa. Siksi hoitoa on tarjottava kaikille potilaille, jotka voivat hyötyä siitä. Sytostaatit ovat kuitenkin potentteja lääkkeitä, joilla voi olla voimakkaat vaikutukset ja haittavaikutukset. Tutkimukset viittaavat siihen, että jäljellä olevan odotetun eliniän tulee olla yli kuukausi, jotta hoidolla olisi toivottu teho.  Koska parantumattoman syöpäsairauden yhteydessä annettu sytostaattihoito ei voi parantaa potilasta, on aina ajan kysymys, milloin hoidon teho alkaa vähetä loppuakseen viimein kokonaan. Silloin jatkettu sytostaattihoito merkitsee potilaalle vain negatiivisten vaikutusten riskiä lisääntyneen väsymyksen, heikentyneen vastustuskyvyn ja jopa eliniän lyhentymän muodossa. Potilaan mahdollisuus selvitä jatketusta sytostaattihoidosta arvioidaan ennen hoidon aloittamista verikokeiden ja kliinisen arvion perusteella. Jos sairaalassa ei ole päivystävää onkologian erikois-lääkäriä, potilas tapaa sairaanhoitajan. Vastaavaan lääkäriin otetaan yhteyttä silloin, kun koevastauksissa tai potilaan tilassa on jotain tavallisuudesta poikkeavaa. Kun sairaus etenee ja yleistila alkaa heiketä, potilaan elämänlaatu usein heikkenee ja elinaika lyhenee. Tällöin on syytä arvioida hoidon tarkoitusta ja pohtia, jatketaanko vai muutetaanko hoitoa, vai lopetetaanko se kokonaan. Kokemukseni sairaanhoitajana parantumattomien syöpäpotilaiden palliatiivisesta hoidosta ja sytostaattihoidosta herätti minussa halun tutkia, kuinka moni potilas saa hoitoa elämän loppuvaiheessa. Halusin myös tutkia, miten potilaat arvioidaan ennen hoitoa, onko arvioinnissa parantamisen varaa ja miten sairaanhoitajat kokevat elämän loppuvaiheessa annettavat sytostaatti-hoidot. Tavoitteet Tutkia, kuinka suuri osa parantumatonta syöpää sairastavista potilaista saa palliatiivista sytostaattihoitoa viimeisen elinkuukautensa aikana sekä löytää tämän potilasryhmän erottavat tekijät. Kehittää ja testata psykometrisesti lyhyt lomake, jolla mitataan potilaan yleistila palliatiivisen sytostaattihoidon yhteydessä. Tunnistaa tilanteita, jotka sairaanhoitajat voivat kokea ongelmallisina syöpäpotilaille annettavan palliatiivisen sytostaattihoidon yhteydessä. Tutkia, onko tutkimuksessa II laaditun lomakkeen rutiininomainen käyttö vaikuttanut viimeisen elinkuukautensa aikana sytostaattihoitoa saavien potilaiden osuuteen, sairaalahoitojaksojen osuuteen, yleistilan dokumentointiin, päättyneen lääkityksen dokumentointiin potilaskertomuksessa ja/tai kuolinpaikkaan.  Menetelmä Kaikki tutkimuksen potilaat olivat saaneet sytostaattihoitoa parantumattomaan, elinten limakalvosoluista lähtöisin olevaan epiteelisyöpään. Potilaat olivat 20 vuotta täyttäneitä ja asuivat Jämtlannin, Västerbottenin tai Norrbottenin alueella. Tutkimukseen osallistuneet sairaanhoitajat työsken-telivät saman alueen sytostaattivastaanotoilla tai -osastoilla. Tutkimuksessa I verrattiin tilastollisia menetelmiä käyttäen kuolleiden, viimeisen elin-kuukautensa aikana sytostaattihoitoa saaneiden potilaiden potilaskerto-mustietoja niihin potilaisiin, joiden hoito oli lopetettu ennen viimeistä elinkuukautta.  Tutkimuksessa II potilaille tarjottiin mahdollisuus osallistua sellaisen lomakkeen kehittämiseen, joka on laadittu mittaamaan potilaiden yleistilaa ennen sytostaattihoitoa. Tutkimuksessa III haastateltiin sairaan-hoitajia, ja heidän kertomuksensa analysoitiin narratiivisia menetelmiä käyttäen. Tutkimuksessa IV verrattiin kuolleiden, tutkimuksen II lomaketta käyttäneiden potilaiden potilaskertomustietoja sopivaan vertailuryhmään ja soveltuvissa osin tutkimuksen I tietoihin.  Tulokset Tutkimus I osoitti, että 23 % kaikista potilaista, jotka olivat saaneet sytostaattihoitoa viimeisen elinvuotensa aikana, saivat sitä myös viimeisenä elinkuukautenaan. Tutkimus osoitti myös, että viimeisen elinkuukauden aikana annetulla sytostaattihoidolla oli yhteisvaihtelua seuraavien tekijöiden kanssa: useat sairaalahoidot kuukauden sisällä viimeisestä sytostaatti-hoidosta, vähemmän hoidon lopettamispäätöksiä ja harvemmat ryhmään kuuluvista potilaista kuolivat kotona. Tutkimuksessa II todettiin, että laadittu lomake osoitti merkkejä sekä reliabiliteetista, validiteetista että kyvystä havaita erot sellaisten potilaiden välillä, joiden yleistila heikkeni tutkimuksen aikana.  Tutkimus III osoitti, että palliatiiviset sytostaatit voidaan kokea potentteina ja ennalta arvaamattomina lääkkeinä. Ne voivat kuitenkin olla ongelmallisia hoitaville sairaanhoitajille silloin, kun sytostaattihoitoa annetaan potilaille, jotka ovat syöpäsairautensa heikentämiä. Sairaanhoitajat kokivat, että he joskus hoitopäätöksiä tehtäessä joutuivat lääkäreiden, potilaiden ja läheisten "väliin" olematta kuitenkaan itse osallisia kommunikaatiosta. Tutkimus IV ei osoittanut, että tutkimuksessa II laaditun lomakkeen avulla suoritetulla rutiininomaisella yleistilan monitoroinnilla olisi mitään tilastollisesti osoitettavaa tehoa. Sillä ei ollut vaikutusta viimeisen elin-kuukauden aikana annettuun hoitoon, sairaalahoitojaksoihin, doku-mentoituihin hoidon lopettamispäätöksiin tai potilaan kuolinpaikkaan. Sairaanhoitajat ilmoittivat kuitenkin, että lomake antoi heille arvokasta tietoa potilaan yleiskunnosta ennen hoitoa. Kliininen hyöty tulevaisuudessa Tutkimuksen tuloksista voivat hyötyä kaikki sytostaattihoitoon osalliset, potilas, läheiset, sairaanhoitaja ja lääkäri; päätösprosessissa, joka koskee hoidon jatkamista tai lopettamista. On kehitettävä entistä parempia menetelmiä yleistilan arvioimiseksi ennen sytostaattihoidon aloittamista. Tulevassa tutkimuksessa voitaisiin tutkimuksen lomakkeesta kehittää sähköinen lomake, jolla tulokset kirjataan potilaskertomukseen, josta sekä sairaanhoitajat että lääkärit saavat tiedot ennen hoitopäätösten tekemistä. Johtopäätökset Elämän loppuvaiheessa annettu palliatiivinen sytostaattihoito voi aiheuttaa tilanteita, jotka voidaan kokea ongelmallisina sekä potilaan että hoitohenkilökunnan kannalta. Tutkimuksissa 23–25 % potilaista sai sytostaatti-hoitoa viimeisen elinkuukautensa aikana. Näitä potilaita hoidettiin useammin sairaalassa ja harvemmat heistä saivat kuolla kotonaan. Omien kuvaustensa mukaan sairaanhoitajat kokivat tietyissä tapauksissa joutuneensa "väliin" sytostaattihoidon jatkamista tai lopettamista koske-vassa päätösprosessissa. Sytostaattihoidon ennalta arvaamattomuus osoittautui tutkielman läpikäyväksi teemaksi.  Tämä ennalta arvaamattomuus merkitsee sitä, että on erittäin tärkeä räätälöidä hoito jokaiselle potilaalle yksilöllisesti.  Tutkielman puitteissa laadittu lomake voisi antaa lisämahdollisuuksia käyttää entistä objektiivisemmin yleistilaa parametrina, kun tehdään hoitopäätöksiä potilaan elämän loppuvaiheessa. Osoittautui, että lomake antaa sairaanhoitajille tärkeää tietoa potilaiden kokemasta yleistilasta vaikka tämä tutkimus ei osoittanutkaan tilastollisesti vahvistettavia eroja lomaketta käyttäneiden ja vertailuryhmän potilaiden välillä. Vaaditaan lisätutkimusta, jotta voitaisiin optimoida päätökset, jotka koskevat palliatiivista sytostaatti-hoitoa elämän loppuvaiheen lähestyessä.

Doctor of Philosophy / Aim and significance: The aim of this research was to explore the phenomenon of Australian nursing home care from the perspective of those who provide and receive it. Its focus is on the processes of ‘quality care’ provision and the meanings and evaluations that care providers attach to their work. In other words, its purpose was to shed light on the practices based on a conceptualisation of care that is entwined with the mechanisms of ‘care’ production and identity creation, or what actually happens in the daily life of the complex social phenomenon that is a nursing home. A related aim was to add to understandings of clinical nursing competence and develop tools that will assist nurses to conceptualise and implement positive change in this setting. Background: The provision of care to our elderly has become a major concern with the ageing of the world population. This is occurring in the context of decline in the capacity of families to take on the responsibility of elder care, and of increasing commercialisation of medical care. Governments have responded by shifting their responsibilities from direct care provision to become auditors of the business of care provision that is supported by public funding. However poor care delivery has largely been hidden from the public gaze. Governments present themselves as having systems in place, creating the illusion of rational control; in reality, like the market economy, there is a ‘black box’ of unknown factors driven by human impulse. The aim of this study was to open up the black box of ‘quality care’ to direct observation, drawing insights from the literature on organisational culture and with a focus on the frontline worker and the construct of quality assurance. Specific research objectives were to: • Document the beliefs and attitudes of care providers towards elderly people in general and the needs of nursing home residents in particular • Elicit the range of meanings and evaluations that care providers attach to their work • Describe their constructions of ‘care’ and ‘quality of care’ and the organisational factors they believe to impact (positively and negatively) on their ability to provide it. • Through in-depth understanding of a particular setting, generate grounded theoretical insights into the phenomenon of quality of residential care that are more widely applicable Method: The study adopted a paradigmatic bricoleur approach, seeking to develop connections between a diverse range of methodologies. These included combinative ethnography, phenomenology, hermeneutics and traditional grounded theory. Conceptual insights were drawn from organisational studies, psychosocial nursing and coping theory. The research site was an Australian for-profit suburban nursing home. The student investigator conducted more than 500 hours of participant observation, recording extensive field notes which were analysed through the perspective of a hermeneutic middle way horizon that directed an augmented constant comparison traditional grounded theory approach. Additional data were collected through formal indepth interviews with six key stakeholders. Interviews were tape recorded, transcribed in full and analysed to reveal themes that were brought within a hermeneutic circle that spiralled recursively from the whole to the part and back to the whole. Findings: Eight key interrelated factors in the production of care within the nursing home were identified: internal and external accountability (the accreditation system); economic considerations; management and training; advocacy; characteristic of residents; care providers’ working conditions and environmental stressors; organisational culture; and the work/care styles of individual care providers. I have categorised the latter into two main types: ‘tortoises’ and ‘hares’. This typology is then used to generate a process-driven schematic diagram that tracks a hypothetical novice care provider through the process of learning how to produce ‘care’. Specifically, I found that nursing home ‘care’ is the outcome of a complex social process involving the interplay between resident, relative, care provider, proprietor, quality assessors and government within the phenomenon of the nursing home. Such care, indeed the phenomenon of the nursing home itself, is not a stable, controllable entity but is in a constant state of flux – what I refer to as a moral ecology. In their everyday practice, care providers devise a construction of ‘quality care’ that is more clearly grounded in their own worldviews and the development of the own identity than in the formal quality assurance system of standards, guidelines and evaluations. Conclusion: Understanding the ‘black box’ of processes that produce care is the key to identifying courses of action that will improve care outcomes. The study findings also question the validity, assumptions and significance of the accreditation system, which only identifies some of the component variables, disregarding both the complexity within the ‘black box’ and failing to acknowledge that the quality of care outcomes is overwhelmingly dependent on individual care providers.

The purpose of the study was to analyse if the two year upgrading programme done at Malawi College of Health Sciences attended by Nurse Midwife Technicians (NMTs) is able to improve the competencies, knowledge, skills and attitude of the graduates when providing comprehensive nursing and midwifery care. The main objectives of this study were • to determine the effectiveness of the Upgrading Diploma in Nursing and Midwifery programme in preparing the competencies of State Registered Nurse Midwifes (SRNMs) • to make recommendations on the training of Upgrading Diploma in Nursing and Midwifery programme The researcher used a quantitative, exploratory, descriptive design. A questionnaire with closed and open-ended questions was used to collect data from SRNMs who completed the upgrading programme. The findings indicated that the upgrading programme has a significant impact to improve the competencies of the NMTs to work as SRNMs. / Health Studies / M.A. (Health Studies)

This study investigated the registered nurses' perceptions of the bureaucratic view of power in health care services in the Tshwane metropolitan region. The study further sought to describe how power affects the role of registered nurses in an organisation that is perceived to be predominantly bureaucratic in its' approach to management. A quantitative descriptive exploratory approach was adopted. Data was drawn from 121 respondents by random distribution of questionnaires to three selected health care services in the Tshwane metropolitan region. The findings revealed that registered nurses were largely divided in their perception of the bureaucratic view of power in health care services. Almost half of the respondents indicated that great strides had been taken by organisations in transforming health care services in accordance with the White Paper (1997) on Transformation of the Health System in South Africa and the recommendations of the 2001 Health Summit. The others indicated that registered nurses still needed to break out of the restraints of their dependant role towards taking ownership of health care services by equally bearing the burden of the organisation with management. / Health Studies / M.A.(Health Studies)