本研究目的為探討國內新聞從業人員在採訪創傷新聞事件後，是否亦間接地受到創傷壓力所影響；又，社會支持與記者的創傷壓力調適有何關聯；而至今國內新聞界在記者創傷議題這部分的認知與作法處於何種階段。在研究方法上，採用質化的深度訪談法，訪談了包括文字記者、攝影記者以及主管職位等13位國內電視新聞從業人員。研究結果發現，普遍而言，國內電視新聞從業人員所承受身心壓力都較一般人來得高，而部分曾經採訪過重大創傷事件或創傷受害者的記者，更可能經歷深層的創傷壓力徵狀，包括侵入性回憶、逃避、高度警覺等。另外，部分受訪記者對創傷新聞事件的反應冷靜，可能源自記者良好的心理建設，但仍有記者是因為同儕壓力、尋求榮譽感或生計壓力等原因，而必須表現勇敢、甚至漠然，此亦可能為創傷壓力反應的一種。容易造成記者創傷壓力的新聞事件主要包括兩類，一為重大災難，一為看似平常、但可能對個別記者影響深刻的普通新聞事件；而易造成創傷壓力之新聞事件特性包括事件本身的嚴重度、記者深入了解新聞故事、與記者關係密切的人成為新聞主角、具情感張力的畫面。最後，個性、性別、路線、職位、電視台定位等變項可能影響記者是否容易面對創傷事件並受創傷壓力所影響。 接著，研究發現記者主要以「自我調適」與「尋求社會支持」兩種方式來應對可能承受的創傷壓力。在自我調適的部分，受訪記者以「娛樂」以及「重新定義生命或工作價值」的方式，來調整自己的狀態。在尋求社會支持的部分，首先，不若國外文獻對同儕支持的全面推崇，國內記者認為同儕支持主要能夠滿足資訊層面，但對同儕支持所提供的情緒支持仍有遲疑，可能與國內新聞圈的競爭激烈有關；第二，記者認為新聞組織能夠、也必須提供全面的物質支持與資訊支持，但由於現今不論是第一線記者或新聞主管，對記者創傷議題仍不熟悉，因此大部分受訪記者對組織是否能提供情緒支持採保留態度；第三，國內電視記者已不排斥尋求專業支持，但這方面的資訊相當缺乏；第四，雖然記者在擔心傷害家人的情況下，對家庭較不提及自身所承受的創傷壓力，但家庭仍提供了記者深層的情緒支持；第五，宗教支持為國內記者能夠舒服地吐露自身壓力的管道，提供了全然的情緒支持，此為國內新聞脈絡較特殊之處。 再者，國內新聞界雖已開始對記者創傷議題開始有初步的認知與作法，但整體的普及度與實行度仍不高。本研究在理解國內情況與參考國外各新聞組織的作法後，對國內新聞界在記者創傷議題可能能夠努力的方向，提出了若干建議。最後，亦在思考研究發現與研究限制後，對未來學術研究提出幾點建議。 / This study investigated trauma experiences of journalists in Taiwan after covering disaster, crime and justice news or interviewing traumatized victims, and how social support mechanism plays a buffering role in their trauma-stress coping. This thesis also explored news rooms’ attention and response toward this issue. This study adapted the semi-structured interview and the grounded theory methodology to analyze in-depth interview data of 13 TV journalists inTaiwan, including script journalists, photojournalists, local journalists and managers. This study found that the interviewed journalists live under physical and mental pressure. Some of those who have covered traumatic news experienced traumatic symptoms, including intrusion, avoidance, and hyperarousal. Although some journalists keep calm when they confront traumatic stress events, we still couldn’t overlook the potential traumatic effect since journalists may suppress their authentic feelings because of peer pressure, sense of honor, or bread and butter. In addition, the interviewed journalists employed “self-adjustment” and “seeking social support” to deal with the traumatic stress. First, the journalists relieved their pressure by means of entertainment, and redefining the value of job and the priorities of life. As for social support, the journalists thought that peer support could satisfy the need of information, but may not necessarily offer fully emotional support because of the flaming competitions between journalists and news organizations. As for news rooms, the journalists asked for tangible support, namely resources and informational support, but were suspicious of the emotional support. Then, this study found that the journalists are willing to seek professional support, but seldom seek support from family because of the worry of horrifying their family members. However, it does not mean that the emotional support from family is not important, and being there is the best support for journalists. Finally, religion support is the main channel from which the journalists could feel safe, peace and calm, which is a unique phenomenon in the Taiwan media settings. In the end, after understanding the Taiwan media situations and consulting the practices of foreign news organizations, this study recommended some suggestions and implications for future studies and news rooms accordingly.

Counselling services as provided by non-professional counsellors have been in place for a number of decades. Counselling traumatised people demands a significant amount of emotional investment from the counsellor. A neglected area as far as non-professional counsellors in South Africa is concerned, is the well-being of the counsellors. Burnout as well as its antithesis, work engagement, are two possible transactional outcomes impacting on the well-being of these counsellors. The measurement of burnout and work engagement requires valid and reliable measuring instruments. The dearth of research studies in the area of burnout and work engagement, together with the unique contribution of non-professional counsellors in organisational settings, has led to the primary focus of this study being the exploration of the experience of this group of counsellors doing trauma counselling in financial institutions in South Africa. A lack of norms for the Maslach Burnout Inventory - Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS), and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) for non-professional counsellors doing trauma counselling makes the identification of burnout and work engagement within this specialist environment difficult. Consequently, investigating the reliability and validity of the MBI-HSS and the UWES would result in the standardisation of these specific measuring instruments, therefore contributing to the identification of burnout and work engagement with non-professional trauma counsellors. Some of the factors that could play a role in the prevalence of burnout and work engagement are secondary traumatic stress, the demands of counselling, lack of resources, personal consequences, social support and sense of coherence. The objectives of this research were to standardise the MBI-HSS and UWES for non-professional counsellors as well as to develop and test a causal model of burnout and work engagement for this specialist group. The research method involved four separate articles, each consisting of a brief literature overview and an empirical study. A cross-sectional design, whereby a sample is drawn from a population at a particular point in time, was used. The data for this study was collected from 168 non-professional counsellors, employed by three of the major banks in South Africa. The MBI-HSS, UWES, Orientation to Life Questionnaire (OLQ) as well as a Self-Report Questionnaire (SRQ) and a biographical questionnaire were administered. Descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, correlations, canonical analysis, and structural equation modelling were used. Structural equation modelling confirmed a three-factor model of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and personal accomplishment). In contrast with research findings confirming the three-factor model of the UWES (vigour, dedication and absorption), a one-factor model for the UWES was confirmed for non-professional counsellors. The internal consistency of the scales for the MBI-HSS and UWES was found to be satisfactory and in line with reported findings in the literature. Structural equation analysis showed that the lack of resources and job demands predicted the core of burnout, namely emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation. The conflicts and pressures that are already associated with the everyday work of non-professional counsellors are likely to be magnified by the counselling role. Non-professional counsellors continually face conflicts created by the fact that they are accountable to large organisations, but professionally, ethically and morally devoted to their clients (the victims of trauma who are being counselled by them). They must balance the competing, and sometimes opposing demands of several parties such as trauma victims, employees, families and communities. To add to these circumstances it is important to remember that counselling is not the main job objective of the non-professional counsellors. Counselling is seen as an "add-on" to their job description and is in most instances not part of their performance measurement/assessment. Work engagement was related to low burnout scores, while personal accomplishment was associated with work engagement. High sense of coherence had a mediating effect on burnout and a positive effect on work engagement. This study seems to emphasise that job demands have a more negative effect on engagement when sense of coherence is low than when sense of coherence is high. Conversely, it is assumed that sense of coherence provides functions such as increased perception of coping capacity or minimised stress appraised, which decreases the effects of stress on an individual. Recommendations for the organisations and future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Counselling services as provided by non-professional counsellors have been in place for a number of decades. Counselling traumatised people demands a significant amount of emotional investment from the counsellor. A neglected area as far as non-professional counsellors in South Africa is concerned, is the well-being of the counsellors. Burnout as well as its antithesis, work engagement, are two possible transactional outcomes impacting on the well-being of these counsellors. The measurement of burnout and work engagement requires valid and reliable measuring instruments. The dearth of research studies in the area of burnout and work engagement, together with the unique contribution of non-professional counsellors in organisational settings, has led to the primary focus of this study being the exploration of the experience of this group of counsellors doing trauma counselling in financial institutions in South Africa. A lack of norms for the Maslach Burnout Inventory - Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS), and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) for non-professional counsellors doing trauma counselling makes the identification of burnout and work engagement within this specialist environment difficult. Consequently, investigating the reliability and validity of the MBI-HSS and the UWES would result in the standardisation of these specific measuring instruments, therefore contributing to the identification of burnout and work engagement with non-professional trauma counsellors. Some of the factors that could play a role in the prevalence of burnout and work engagement are secondary traumatic stress, the demands of counselling, lack of resources, personal consequences, social support and sense of coherence. The objectives of this research were to standardise the MBI-HSS and UWES for non-professional counsellors as well as to develop and test a causal model of burnout and work engagement for this specialist group. The research method involved four separate articles, each consisting of a brief literature overview and an empirical study. A cross-sectional design, whereby a sample is drawn from a population at a particular point in time, was used. The data for this study was collected from 168 non-professional counsellors, employed by three of the major banks in South Africa. The MBI-HSS, UWES, Orientation to Life Questionnaire (OLQ) as well as a Self-Report Questionnaire (SRQ) and a biographical questionnaire were administered. Descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, correlations, canonical analysis, and structural equation modelling were used. Structural equation modelling confirmed a three-factor model of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and personal accomplishment). In contrast with research findings confirming the three-factor model of the UWES (vigour, dedication and absorption), a one-factor model for the UWES was confirmed for non-professional counsellors. The internal consistency of the scales for the MBI-HSS and UWES was found to be satisfactory and in line with reported findings in the literature. Structural equation analysis showed that the lack of resources and job demands predicted the core of burnout, namely emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation. The conflicts and pressures that are already associated with the everyday work of non-professional counsellors are likely to be magnified by the counselling role. Non-professional counsellors continually face conflicts created by the fact that they are accountable to large organisations, but professionally, ethically and morally devoted to their clients (the victims of trauma who are being counselled by them). They must balance the competing, and sometimes opposing demands of several parties such as trauma victims, employees, families and communities. To add to these circumstances it is important to remember that counselling is not the main job objective of the non-professional counsellors. Counselling is seen as an "add-on" to their job description and is in most instances not part of their performance measurement/assessment. Work engagement was related to low burnout scores, while personal accomplishment was associated with work engagement. High sense of coherence had a mediating effect on burnout and a positive effect on work engagement. This study seems to emphasise that job demands have a more negative effect on engagement when sense of coherence is low than when sense of coherence is high. Conversely, it is assumed that sense of coherence provides functions such as increased perception of coping capacity or minimised stress appraised, which decreases the effects of stress on an individual. Recommendations for the organisations and future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Thesis (MA (Theol.))-University of Pretoria, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references.

The purpose of this study is to tell the story of lay trauma counsellors - how the work they do affects them, what helps them to cope and what hinders their coping. The epistemological framework of this study is constructivism. This study involved in-depth interviews with three lay trauma counsellors from different cultural backgrounds who counselled for a minimum of one year. Hermeneutics was the method used to analyse the data. The stories of participants were recounted through the researcher’s lens in the form of specific themes that emerged for individual participants. Recurring themes evident in the stories of all three participants were discussed and compared with the literature. The information gleaned could be valuable to organisations considering setting up lay trauma programmes, to those with established programmes, as well as to prospective and experienced lay counsellors. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

Background: Nurses face many challenges in the nursing profession. One challenge is the ability to handle patient trauma and at the same time, as a nurse, process their trauma. With more awareness about how secondary traumatic stress shows itself in nurses and its aftermath, the stress can be identified in earlier stages. Aim: The aim of this literature review is to map how the aftermath of secondary traumatic stress show itself in nurses, described by nurses. Method: This study has been designed as a qualitative literature review with searches carried out in the databases CINAHL and PubMed. The mapping resulted in ten articles that were reviewed for their quality. Result: The metasynthesis of the identified articles resulted in seven subthemes, desire to leave nursing, providing insufficient care, teamwork, depersonalization, emotional distress, lack of resources and knowledge deficit. Conclusion: When the secondary traumatic stress overpowers the nurse, it may result in the nurse leaving its profession. Future research should thereby focus on methods that support the nurses exposed to secondary traumatic stress and lessen their feeling of exhaustion. Methods that help not only the nurses but also the patients they care for. / Bakgrund: Sjuksköterskan ställs inför många utmaningar inom sitt yrke. En av dessa utmaningar är att handskas med patienters trauma och samtidigt kunna bearbeta dess trauma. Med ökad kunskap om hur sekundär traumatisk stress visar sig och dess följder kan denna stress identifieras i ett tidigare skede. Syfte: Syftet med denna litteraturstudie är att kartlägga efterföljderna av sekundär traumatisk stress för sjuksköterskor, beskrivet av sjuksköterskor. Metod: Studien har designats som en kvalitativ litteraturstudie med genomförda sökningar i databaserna CINAHL och PubMed. Kartläggningen resulterade i tio artiklar som kvalitetsgranskades. Resultat: Metasyntesen av de identifierade artiklarna resulterade i sju underteman, viljan att lämna yrket, ge otillräcklig vård, lagarbete, depersonalisering, emotionell stress, brist på resurser och brist på kunskap. Slutsats: När den sekundära traumatiska stressen blir dem övermäktiga så kan det resultera i att sjuksköterskorna lämnar yrket. Framtida forskning bör därför fokusera på metoder som stöttar sjuksköterskor exponerade för sekundär traumatisk stress och lindrar deras känsla av utmattning. Metoder som ytterst är till gagn inte bara för sjuksköterskor utan även för patienterna de vårdar.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a diagnosis given after the development of maladaptive behavior following exposure to traumatic events. This is the first quantitative study regarding the Swedish emergency dispatching population (n = 97) and posttraumatic (secondary traumatic) stress. The main research question for this study was: “How prevalent are clinically significant posttraumatic stress symptoms among Swedish emergency dispatchers?”; the secondary research question formed became: “What relationship, if any, can be found between the prevalence of clinically significant posttraumatic stress symptoms and other psychological ailments such as depression and burnout?”. The study used a digital questionnaire containing the screening tests ProQoL, MADRS-S and PCL-C to examine the prevalence of symptomology among dispatchers. The participants answers are then analyzed using correlation matrices, one sample t-tests, reliability analyses and descriptives to identify correlations, prevalence rates and other statistically significant items. 57 of the 97 respondents (58.8%) reported symptoms that were above the cutoff to suspect moderate PTSD, 50 of the 97 respondents (51.5%) reported symptoms that were above the cutoff to suspect mild depression and 76 of the 97 respondents (76.3%) reported symptoms that were above the cutoff to suspect burnout. The study concludes that there is an elevated prevalence of PTSD symptoms among Swedish emergency dispatchers (Student’s t = 3.85, Cohen’s d = 0.391, p <.001) and that these symptoms are significantly and positively correlated to symptoms of burnout (r = 0.740, p < .001) and depression (r = 0.820, p < .001). / Posttraumatiskt stresstillstånd (PTSD) är en diagnos som ges efter utvecklingen av maladaptive beteende till följd av exponering till traumatiska händelser. Detta är den första kvantitativa studie som riktar sig mot den svenska nödsamtalsoperatörs populationen (n = 97) angående posttraumatisk (sekundär traumatisk) stress. Den primära frågeställningen i denna studie blev: “Hur prevalent är klinisk signifikant posttraumatiskt stressymptom hos svenska nödsamtalsoperatörer?”; den sekundära frågeställningen blev: ”Vilken relation, om någon, kan finnas mellan prevalensen av klinisk signifikanta posttraumatiska stressymptom och andra tillstånd av psykologisk ohälsa såsom depression och utmattning?”. Studien använde ett digitalt frågeformulär som innehöll screeningtesterna ProQoL, MADRS-S och PCL-C för att undersöka prevalensen av symptombilden hos nödsamtalsoperatörer.  Deltagarnas svar analyserades med hjälp av korrelationsmatriser, one sample t-tester, reliabilitets analyser samt descriptives för att identifiera korrelationer, prevalensen samt andra signifikanta statistik. 57 utav 97 respondenter (58,8%) rapporterade symptom som låg över gränsen för att misstänka måttlig PTSD, 50 utav 97 respondenter (51,5%) rapporterade symptom som låg över gränsen för att misstänka mild depression och 76 utav 97 respondenter (76,3%) rapporterade symptom som låg över gränsen för att misstänka utmattning. Studien drar slutsatsen att det finns en högre prevalens av PTSD symptom hos svenska nödsamtalsoperatörer (Student’s t = 3,85, Cohen’s d = 0,391, p <,001) samt att dessa symptom är signifikant och positivt korrelerade med symptomen för både utmattning (r = 0,740, p < ,001) och depression (r = 0,820, p < ,001).

Syftet med den här uppsatsen är att belysa det organisatoriska samt kollegiala stödets betydelse i förebyggandet av sekundär traumatisering. Sekundär traumatisering är ett fenomen som drabbar flera yrkesgrupper, däribland socionomer. Följderna av sekundär traumatisering kan påverka den drabbades privat- samt yrkesliv och det kan i vissa fall leda till utbrändhet, PTSD eller PTSD-liknande symtom. Uppsatsen är av kvalitativt slag och använder sig av semistrukturerade intervjuer med socionomer för att för att få en fördjupad förståelse för deras upplevelser av det förebyggande arbetet mot sekundär traumatisering. Tidigare forskning har framförallt fokuserat på individuella copingstrategier för att förebygga sekundär traumatisering och mindre på det kollegiala samt organisatoriska stödets betydelse i frågan. Resultatet från det insamlade materialet analyseras i en tematisk analys genom de teoretiska perspektiven organisationskultur och känsloarbete samt psykosocial arbetsmiljö. Resultaten visar att det organisatoriska och kollegiala stödet uttrycks ha en stor betydelse för det förebyggande arbetet av sekundär traumatisering. Trots detta visar resultaten av vår studie också att mycket av detta ansvar istället hamnar hos individen. Studien visar också att det kollegiala stödet uttrycks ha en stor betydelse men att det också har sina begränsningar då det sällan finns några riktlinjer för hur stödet ska vara utformat. Även ansvaret för detta kan felaktigt tillskrivas till individnivå och leda till stress för individen. Tidigare forskning har inte fokuserat på helheten av problemet utan snarare de individuella strategierna. Vi ser därför att det är av stor vikt att framtida forskning fokuserar på även det organisatoriska och kollegiala stödets betydelse i förebyggande av sekundär traumatisering för att lyfta en del av ansvaret ifrån individen.

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Sekundär traumatisk stress är ett problem inom socialt arbete. Begränsad forskning finnsangående hur det skulle kunna förebyggas samt behandlas. Syftet med litteraturöversikten vardärför att sammanställa kunskapsläget av befintlig litteratur angående faktorer som förebyggersamt behandlar sekundär traumatisk stress hos socialarbetare. Studien avsåg även att undersökavilken effekt faktorerna hade. Litteraturöversikten utgick från metodiken av en scoping review.Datamaterialet bestod av 15 vetenskapliga artiklar. Samtliga artiklar analyserades medinnehållsanalys, ytterligare gjordes en narrativ sammanställning av de kvantitativa artiklarna.Resultatet visar att individuella faktorer som att kunna hantera sina känslor i olika situationeroch sammanhang samt att utföra egenvård, är exempel på betydelsefulla förebyggande ochbehandlande faktorer. Regelbunden handledning samt stöd från chefer och medarbetare, ärexempel på organisatoriska faktorer som hade en betydande roll i det förebyggande ochbehandlande arbetet mot sekundär traumatisk stress. / The purpose of this study was to compile the state of knowledge in the existing literature aboutfactors that prevent and treat secondary traumatic stress in social workers. The study also aimedto investigate the effect of the factors. This literature review was based on the methodology ofa scoping review. The data was contained by 15 different scientific articles. All these articleswere analyzed by content analysis, and further there were a narrative compilation of thequantitative articles. The results of the study show individual factors like to be able to deal withtheir emotions in different kind of situations and contexts, and to perform selfcare, are someexamples of meaningful factors. Regular guidance and support from managers and other coworkersare some examples of important organizational factors in the prevention and treatingwork against secondary traumatic stress.