In this dissertation, the price of variance swaps under stochastic volatility models based on the work done by Barndorff-Nielsen and Shepard (2001) and Heston (1993) is discussed. The choice of these models is as a result of properties they possess which position them as an improvement to the traditional Black-Scholes (1973) model. Furthermore, the popularity of these models in literature makes them particularly attractive. A lot of work has been done in the area of pricing variance swaps since their inception in the late 1990’s. The growth in the number of variance contracts written came as a result of investors’ increasing need to be hedged against exposure to future variance fluctuations. The task at the core of this dissertation is to derive closed or semi-closed form expressions of the fair price of variance swaps under the two stochastic models. Although various researchers have shown that stochastic models produce close to market results, it is more desirable to obtain the fair price of variance derivatives using models under which no assumptions about the dynamics of the underlying asset are made. This is the work of a useful analytical formula derived by Demeterfi, Derman, Kamal and Zou (1999) in which the price of variance swaps is hedged through a finite portfolio of European call and put options of different strike prices. This scheme is practically explored in an example. Lastly, conclusions on pricing using each of the methodologies are given. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2019. / Mathematics and Applied Mathematics / MSc (Financial Engineering) / Unrestricted

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Les dernières décennies ont été témoin d’un accroissement considérable du poids et de l’influence de la finance au sein des sociétés contemporaines, un phénomène que les sciences sociales ont commencé à cerner grâce à la notion de financiarisation. La financiarisation demeure un phénomène peu étudié en droit. Notre thèse contribue à son étude en adoptant une approche socio-juridique : elle part de l’hypothèse qu’une telle transformation des rapports sociaux et économiques a été l’occasion de controverses sur la scène juridique, à partir desquelles on peut mieux comprendre ce que représente la financiarisation en droit. Nous avons choisi d’aborder ces controverses à partir d’une question spécifique, celle de l’innovation financière, en prenant comme cas d’étude un type particulier d’instruments financiers ayant bouleversé le paysage de la finance depuis leur apparition dans les années 1980 : les swaps, ou les instruments dérivés de gré à gré. À partir d’une analyse des documents contractuels produits par l’industrie, de la littérature professionnelle de droit financier et du contentieux relatif aux swaps, notre étude retrace l’histoire juridique de ces instruments financiers. Il ressort de notre étude qu’en se livrant à un travail de mise en forme juridique de l’innovation financière, les juristes ont non seulement favorisé le succès des nouveaux marchés d’instruments financiers, mais qu’ils ont en outre amorcé une profonde transformation de la culture juridique du monde des affaires. La financiarisation coïncide ainsi, en droit, avec un renouvellement des concepts, des valeurs, des pratiques, des instruments et des modes d’argumentation que déploient les juristes des milieux financiers. Nous soutenons que, sous l’influence de ces derniers, c’est en fin de compte le droit lui-même qui s’est financiarisé, d’une façon qui a sensiblement accru l’autonomie juridique de l’industrie financière. / The last few decades have witnessed a considerable increase in the weight and influence of finance in contemporary societies, a phenomenon that social scientists have begun to study with the concept of financialization. Financialization remains rarely studied in law. This dissertation contributes to its study by adopting a socio-legal approach: it assumes that such a transformation of social and economic relations must have given rise to controversies in the legal arena, from which one could better understand what financialization means in law. I have chosen to approach these controversies through a specific question, that of financial innovation. I took as a case study a particular type of financial instruments, which have transformed the financial landscape since their invention in the 1980s: swaps, or over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives. Based on the analysis of contractual documents crafted by the industry, of the professional literature in financial law, and of the case law arising from swap disputes, this study recounts the legal history of these financial instruments. It shows that legal practitioners, through the legal shaping of financial innovation, have not only fostered the success of the new markets for financial instruments, but have also initiated a profound transformation of business’s legal culture. Financialization thus coincides, in law, with a renewal of concepts, values, practices, instruments and modes of argument deployed by financial lawyers. I argue that, under the influence of the latter, it is ultimately the law itself that was financialized, in a way that significantly increased the legal autonomy of the financial industry.

Purpose: The purpose of the thesis is to describe which foreign exchange risk techniques that are used by medium- and large-sized Swedish companies within the Jönköping region, and how they as well as a bank evaluate the techniques in the current recession. Background: The reason why companies decide to expand their operations abroad is to take advantage from imperfections in other national markets. The fluctuations in currencies and exchange rates can have a huge effect on a company’s cash flows when doing business abroad. Therefore, when companies manage their foreign exchange risk, they have to be familiar with all the methods and tools available in order to pick the ones that best suit their needs. Method: We sent out a questionnaire and got it answered by eight companies within the Jönköping region regarding their strategy when managing foreign exchange risk. We have also interviewed a financial adviser, working at Handelsbanken, regarding the techniques offered to companies. A “foreign currency table” located in Linköping, was also contacted. They are in charge of creating recommendations and products sold by Handelsbanken. Conclusion: Hedging is the most frequently used tool by the companies in our study. Leading and lagging strategies are used quite often, while swaps and invoice currency is used less frequently by them. Exposure netting and cash pooling does not seem to be used at all. We believe that companies generally should seek more information on new techniques introduced in the market and be open to new possibilities and solutions for managing currency risk. Most of the companies in our sample, according to us, are too comfortable in their choice of techniques. / Syfte: Syftet med denna uppsats är att beskriva vilka valutarisk tekniker som används av medelstora och stora företag inom Jönköpings området, samt hur dessa företag och en bank utvärderar teknikerna i den rådande lågkonjunkturen. Bakgrund: Anledningen till varför företag väljer att expandera utomlands är för att ta nytta av fördelar som uppstår i andra marknader. Fluktuationer i valutor och valutakurser kan ha stor effekt på företagens kassaflöden när handel utomlands utförs. När företag hanterar sin valutarisk måste de vara familjära med de olika metoder som finns tillgängliga, för att få reda på vilka av dessa som bäst tillgodoser deras behov. Metod: Åtta företag inom Jönköpings regionen, svarade på ett formulär, angående deras strategi när det kommer till hantering av valutarisk. Vi har även intervjuat en företags rådgivare på Handelsbanken, angående teknikerna som de erbjuder företagen. Valutabordet i Linköping har också blivit kontaktat. De har till uppgift att ta fram rekommendationer och produkter som säljs av Handelsbanken. Slutsats: Hedging är den teknik som används mest av företagen i vår undersökning. Leading och lagging används rätt så ofta, medan swaps och invoice currency används mer sällan av dem. Exposure netting och cash pooling tycks inte användas alls. Vi anser att företag generellt ska eftersöka mer information om nya tekniker som introduceras på marknaden samt vara öppna för nya möjligheter och lösningar till att hantera valutarisk. De flesta av de undersökta företagen anser vi i dagsläget är för bekväma i sina val av tekniker.

<p><strong>Purpose: </strong>The purpose of the thesis is to describe which foreign exchange risk techniques that are used by medium- and large-sized Swedish companies within the Jönköping region, and how they as well as a bank evaluate the techniques in the current recession.</p><p><strong>Background: </strong>The reason why companies decide to expand their operations abroad is to take advantage from imperfections in other national markets. The fluctuations in currencies and exchange rates can have a huge effect on a company’s cash flows when doing business abroad. Therefore, when companies manage their foreign exchange risk, they have to be familiar with all the methods and tools available in order to pick the ones that best suit their needs.</p><p><strong>Method: </strong>We sent out a questionnaire and got it answered by eight companies within the Jönköping region regarding their strategy when managing foreign exchange risk. We have also interviewed a financial adviser, working at Handelsbanken, regarding the techniques offered to companies. A “foreign currency table” located in Linköping, was also contacted. They are in charge of creating recommendations and products sold by Handelsbanken. <strong></strong></p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Hedging is the most frequently used tool by the companies in our study. Leading and lagging strategies are used quite often, while swaps and invoice currency is used less frequently by them. Exposure netting and cash pooling does not seem to be used at all. We believe that companies generally should seek more information on new techniques introduced in the market and be open to new possibilities and solutions for managing currency risk. Most of the companies in our sample, according to us, are too comfortable in their choice of techniques.<strong></strong></p> / <p><strong>Syfte: </strong>Syftet med denna uppsats är att beskriva vilka valutarisk tekniker som används av<strong> </strong>medelstora och stora företag inom Jönköpings området, samt hur dessa företag och en bank utvärderar teknikerna i den rådande lågkonjunkturen.</p><p><strong>Bakgrund: </strong>Anledningen till varför företag väljer att expandera utomlands är för att ta nytta av fördelar som uppstår i andra marknader. Fluktuationer i valutor och valutakurser kan ha stor effekt på företagens kassaflöden när handel utomlands utförs. När företag hanterar sin valutarisk måste de vara familjära med de olika metoder som finns tillgängliga, för att få reda på vilka av dessa som bäst tillgodoser deras behov.</p><p><strong>Metod: </strong>Åtta företag inom Jönköpings regionen, svarade på ett formulär, angående deras strategi när det kommer till hantering av valutarisk. Vi har även intervjuat en företags rådgivare på Handelsbanken, angående teknikerna som de erbjuder företagen. Valutabordet i Linköping har också blivit kontaktat. De har till uppgift att ta fram rekommendationer och produkter som säljs av Handelsbanken.<strong></strong></p><p><strong>Slutsats: </strong>Hedging är den teknik som används mest av företagen i vår undersökning. Leading och lagging används rätt så ofta, medan swaps och invoice currency används mer sällan av dem. Exposure netting och cash pooling tycks inte användas alls. Vi anser att företag generellt ska eftersöka mer information om nya tekniker som introduceras på marknaden samt vara öppna för nya möjligheter och lösningar till att hantera valutarisk. De flesta av de undersökta företagen anser vi i dagsläget är för bekväma i sina val av tekniker.</p>

This paper provides an exploration of major traded derivative instruments in Chile, the interest rate swaps, and most commonly used valuation methods, addressing financial risk management in the context of the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). We analyze the requirements for adopting hedge accounting, particularly with regard to evidence of effectiveness, and discuss particular aspects of the Chilean case that companies must face the time to prove the validity of contracts and contract coverage. The study’s findings suggest that the local market still has problems of efficiency and availability of information to (i) properly manage financial risks and (ii) demonstrate the effectiveness of hedges under IFRS. / El presente trabajo realiza una revisión, análisis y exploración de uno de los principales instrumentos derivados transados en Chile, los swaps de tasas de interés, y sus métodos de valorización más utilizados, además de abordar la gestión de riesgos financieros en el contexto de las International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). Se analizan los requisitos exigidos para adoptar contabilidad de cobertura, especialmente las pruebas de efectividad, y se discuten otros aspectos particulares del caso chileno que las compañías deben enfrentar al momento de demostrar la validez de las coberturas contratadas y por contratar. Las conclusiones del estudio apuntan a que el mercado local aún presenta problemas de eficiencia y disponibilidad de información para (i) gestionar correctamente los riesgos financieros y (ii) demostrar la efectividad de las coberturas bajo IFRS.

[pt] O atual panorama do mercado energético no Brasil permite aos produtores de energia realizar operações de swap de preços, o que diminui os riscos intrínsecos da operação, além de garantir, ocasionalmente, melhores lucros. Devido à diferenças existentes entre as demandas dos diversos submercados de energia, pode-se arbitrar os preços, de modo a minimizar as perdas. Tendo por objetivo encontrar melhores formas de realizar este swap e utilizando-se de duas mil séries dos preços projetados de liquidação das diferenças (PLD), dos anos de 2016, 2017 e 2018, analisou-se a magnitude dos riscos considerando-se o hedge especificamente para parques eólicos no nordeste com venda no sudeste. Os resultados encontrados indicam que apesar da magnitude do risco ser grande, os swaps de energia são bastante eficazes em sua mitigação. / [en] The panorama of the energy market in Brazil allows energy producers to make swap operations with prices, decreasing the intrinsic risks of operation, besides ensuring, occasionally, better profits. Due to the difference between the demands of the various energy submarkets, they may arbitrage the prices to minimize their losses. With the objective to find better ways to make this swap, and working on two thousand series of the settlement price of differences, from the years of 2016, 2017 and 2018, it was possible to analyze the magnitude of the risks, considering the hedge. Despite the results, the Brazilian energy infrastructure is highly dependent on rainfall patterns, showing clear weakness in drought periods. A higher investment in the sustainable energy sector, is necessary in or-der to ensure a more continuous supply, taking into account the experience of other countries.

Legal Aspects of Derivatives This thesis deals with derivatives and their legal aspects. The purpose of the thesis is to focus on the main characteristics of derivative contracts and try to find their legal nature. The main reason for choosing the topic was the lack of information about legal problems regarding derivatives. It seems to be an interesting paradox. Billions of derivatives contracts are traded every day but not much has been written about them from the law point of view. Although there are many books dealing with their economic characteristics their accounting and tax aspects, it is hardly possible to find a monograph dealing with their legal base. This thesis is divided into five main parts. The first one describes derivatives in general, offers a definition and divides them into basic categories. The second part encompasses history of derivatives and their regulation. This part is mainly connected to common law rules since derivatives have developed mostly within Anglo-American law systems. The third part concentrates on problems arising from the fact that although derivatives are traded all over the world their legal basis remains unclear. The question arising is whether to treat derivatives as wagers, insurance policies or as some different type of contract. In this part I offer my...

Der erste Artikel analysiert den Einfluss von CDS Handel auf Kreditsyndizierung. Theoretisch können CDS sowohl positive wie auch negative Effekte haben. Auf der einen Seite sind CDS flexiblere Risikomanagement-Instrumente als Kredit Verkäufe. Auf der andern Seite kann ein Kreditgeber nicht glaubhaft versichern einen Kreditnehmer zu überwachen, wenn Kreditrisiko anonym mit CDS abgelegt werden kann (moral hazard). Wir finden, dass Kreditgeber signifikant höhere Anteile an Krediten halten, wenn CDS auf das Fremdkapital des Kreditnehmers gehandelt werden. Wir finden keine Evidenz für moral hazard. Der zweite Artikel untersucht den Einfluss von Manager Optimismus auf die Verwendung von performance-abhängigen Vertragsklauseln in Kreditverträgen (PSD). Gegeben ihrer verzerrten Erwartungen über die zukünftige Performance der Firma könnten optimistische Manager PSD als günstige Finanzierungsmöglichkeit ansehen. Wir finden, dass optimistische Manager mehr PSD nutzen und schlechter nach der Ausgabe von PSD performen als rationale Manager. Der dritte Artikel untersucht, ob PSD genutzt werden kann um hold-up Probleme in langfristigen Kreditbeziehungen zu verringern. Wir finden, dass PSD mehr in Hausbankbeziehungen genutzt wird – insbesondere wenn der Kreditnehmer wenig alternative Finanzierungsmöglichkeiten besitzt. Des Weiteren finden wir einen Substitutionseffekt zwischen der Stärkte von Finanz-Covenants und der Nutzung von PSD. Diese Resultate stützen die Hypothese, dass PSD genutzt wird um hold-up Probleme zu mindern. / The first paper analyzes the impact of credit default swap (CDS) trading on loan syndication. Theoretically, CDS can have both positive and negative effects. One the one hand, CDS are a flexible risk management tool and can therefore replace loan sales (risk management). On the other hand, lenders can no longer credibly commit to monitor a borrower if laying off credit risk anonymously via CDS is possible making loan sales costly (moral hazard). We find that lenders retain significantly higher shares of loans once CDS are actively traded on a borrower’s debt. We find no evidence for moral hazard. The second paper examines the impact of managerial optimism on the inclusion of performance-pricing provisions in debt contracts (PSD). Given their upwardly biased expectations about the firm''s future cash flow, optimistic managers may view PSD as a relatively cheap form of financing. We find that optimistic managers are more likely to issue PSD. Consistent with their biased expectations, firms with optimistic managers perform worse than firms with rational managers after issuing PSD. The third paper examines if PSD is used to reduce hold- up problems in long-term lending relationships. We find that the use of PSD is more common in the presence of a long-term lending relationship and if the borrower has fewer financing alternatives available. Further, we find a substitution effect between the use of PSD and the tightness of financial covenants. This result also supports our hypothesis that hold-up concerns motivate the use of PSD.

差額互換是一種能提供投資人在不直接引起匯率風險的情況下，參與他國貨幣市場，以增加投資收益及降低資金成本的新金融商品。依照支付與計價貨幣的不同，可分為以本國貨幣、外國貨幣以及第三國貨幣為支付與計價貨幣三種不同的型態。由於Wei(1994)、唐英傑(1997)的定價模型僅評價出上述前兩種型態的差額互換，本研究的主要目的即為延續Wei(1994)的定價方法，評價出最一般化的差額互換，即本國與外國利率交換而以第三國貨幣為支付貨幣的差額互換，並且證明上述的兩種差額互換為此一般化差額互換的特例。三種差額互換詳細的評價過程均附於附錄，提供有興趣的讀者參考。 評價方法主要是分別計算本國與外國的現金流量，再以本國與外國的期望值折現到目前的時點，同時透過匯率效果將外國的期望值轉換為本國的期望值，於是可將每期所支付利息的現值整理為各國零息債券價格與相關參數的組合。 最後分別針對三種差額互換的評價結果與避險比率從事敏感度分析，以及嘗試由模擬數據探討評價與利差、到期日以及相關係數的關聯性，由模擬數據分析顯示以下結果： 1.利率隨機過程的風險市價並未直接出現在公式中，而隱含在各國的零息債券中。 2.國內的利率風險對差額互換的評價影響程度較國外大。 3.利率風險相較於匯率風險對評價影響更劇烈。 4.差額互換的評價中，利率與匯率的相關性風險比利率間的相關性風險所佔的份量更為吃重。 5.匯率主要是透過利率與匯率的相關係數來影響差額互換的評價。 6.差額互換的到期日越長，目前市場上的利差對評價的影響越小，尤其是以第三國貨幣為支付貨幣的差額互換。 7.契約訂定升水的絕對值會小於目前的利差的情況，僅在以本國貨幣為支付貨幣的差額互換發生，而其餘兩種差額互換則因被匯率風險所干擾，而無法直接從模擬數據中看出契約訂定升水能否反映兩國利率期間結構的相對性。 8.利率與匯率的相關性風險對差額互換評價的影響效果最明顯，其次為匯率間的相關性風險，利率間的相關性風險則居最末位。 此篇論文主要探討一般化的差額互換評價與避險，以及變數對差額互換評價與避險的影響。透過模擬數據的整理與分析，能讓我們對該新金融商品的特性與所面臨風險有更進一步的了解，以期在從事該商品的交易與操作更能得心應手。 第一章 緒論…………………………………………………………………1 第一節 研究動機與研究目的………………………………………………1 第二節 研究方法與研究架構………………………………………………2 第二章 差額互換概述………………………………………………………4 第一節 差額互換簡介………………………………………………………4 第二節 差額互換的產生動機………………………………………………6 第三節 差額互換的應用……………………………………………………8 第四節 差額互換的風險…………………………………………………14 第三章 文獻回顧……………………………………………………………16 第四章 理論模型與評價……………………………………………………18 第一節 理論模型假設……………………………………………………18 第二節 差額互換評價……………………………………………………19 第五章 差額互換避……………………………………………………27 第六章 模擬與相關問題探討………………………………………………32 第一節 參數變動對差額互換評價的敏感度分析………………………32 第二節 敏感度分析模擬總結……………………………………………35 第三節 問題探討…………………………………………………………36 第四節 避險比率相關模擬………………………………………………39 第七章 結論…………………………………………………………………40 附錄A…………………………………………………………………………41 附錄B…………………………………………………………………………44 附錄C…………………………………………………………………………50 附錄D…………………………………………………………………………57 附錄E…………………………………………………………………………65 附錄F…………………………………………………………………………67 附錄G…………………………………………………………………………69 附錄H…………………………………………………………………………75 參考書目與文獻……………………………………………………………100