The paper is located on the border between physics, mathematics and philosophy (ontology). The latter is required to embed the dualistic by nature mathematics into a monistic metatheory. It is shown, that a consequent philosophical monism and an approach which starts from the origin of the universe imposes significant constraints on a physical Theory-of-Everything. This may be helpful for finding such a theory. A philosophical system that is monistic and at the same time structured clear enough to be compatible with mathematical thinking is the Hegelian dialectic logic. With the aid of this logic the necessary existence of a causal chain embedded in the general, unconditional and timeless being is proved constructively. In the causal chain our entire reality is coded. It is termed by Hegel as determinate being in contrast to being. The chain has a beginning, representing the birth of the universe (big bang) and the beginning of time. It is isomorphic to the natural numbers. The half-ring structure of the natural numbers induces a secondary causal network. Thus the ontological approach results in a special version of the theory or causal sets. The causal network is topologically homeo-morphic to an infinite dimensional Minkowski cone. Each prime number corresponds to a dimension. Hypothetical small 'bumps” of 4D spacetime (Brane) in the direction of the extra dimensions of the Minkowski manifold mean topological defects, which can be interpreted as curvature of spacetime. This means a bridge to the general theory of relativity. On the other hand, the bumps may be interpreted as objects with which one can handle similar to the strings in string theory. / Die Arbeit bewegt sich im Grenzgebiet zwischen Physik, Mathematik und Philosophie (Ontologie). Letztere wird benötigt, um die vom Wesen her dualistische Mathematik in eine monistische Metatheorie einzubetten. Es wird gezeigt, dass ein konsequenter philosophischer Monismus und ein Denken vom Ursprung des Universums her einer physikalischen Theorie-von-Allem erhebliche Randbedingungen auferlegen. Für das Auffinden einer solchen Theorie kann das hilfreich sein. Ein philosophisches System, dass monistisch ist und zugleich klar genug strukturiert um mit der mathematischen Denkweise kompatibel zu sein ist die Hegelsche dialektische Logik. Unter Zuhilfenahme dieser Logik wird die notwendige Existenz einer in das allgemeine, unbedingte und zeitlose Sein eingebetteten, aber vom Chaos dieses Seins unbeeinflussten kausalen Kette konstruktiv bewiesen. In dieser kausalen Kette ist unsere gesamte Realität codiert, von Hegel als Dasein im Gegensatz zum Sein bezeichnet. Die Kette hat einen Anfang, der den Anfang des Universums und den Anfang der Zeit darstellt. Sie ist isomorph zu den natürlichen Zahlen. Deren Halbring-Struktur induziert ein sekundäres kausales Netzwerk. Somit ist das Ergebnis der ontologischen Herangehensweise eine spezielle Version der Theorie der kausalen Mengen. Das Netzwerk ist topologisch homöomorph ist zu einem unendlich dimensionalen Minkowski-Kegel. Jeder Primzahl entspricht eine Dimension. Hypothetische kleine „Ausbeulungen“ oder „Bumps“ der 4D-Raumzeit (Brane) in Richtung der Extradimensionen der Minkowski-Mannigfaltigkeit bedeuten topologische Baufehler, die sich als Krümmung der Raumzeit interpretieren lassen und eine Brücke zur allgemeinen Relativi-tätstheorie darstellen. Auf der anderen Seite lassen sich die Ausbeulungen der Brane als Objekte deuten, mit denen man ähnlich umgehen kann wie mit den Strings der Stringtheorie.

This diploma thesis aims to explore whether international intervention can be the main cause of suicide terrorism. To determine this causal relation between suicide terrorism and international intervention, it tests Robert Pape's nationalist theory. The research sample of the cases of Afghanistan, Iraq, Pakistan, and Palestine was selected based on the Suicide Terrorism Attack database. The thesis applies the empirical-analytical methodology and the method of multiple case study to confirm or refute the validity of the research hypotheses. The outcome of the thesis is that the main trigger for a suicide terrorist campaign is a significantly stronger adversary, a social climate conducive to self- sacrifice, and an individual sense of hopelessness. The presence of international intervention fulfils all these features, but the theory has its limits - an exclusive focus on foreign intervention and state centrality.

This diploma thesis is focused on David Hume's analysis of causality. The two major philosophical works about this topic are A Treatise of Human Nature and Enquiries concerning Human Understanding. The first chapter is about intellectual background which Hume came from when he is dealing with cause-effect problem. At that time there were two main epistemological theories: rationalism and empirism. Both will be discuss there. The next chapter is about Hume's way of thinking about human understanding. This chapter is important for us beacuse there are many terms which will be useful for understanding causality. Crucial role plays The Theory of Ideas, according to each content of a mind has a source in experience. The first perceptions are called impresions and their copies are called ideas. Ideas are processed by memory and imagination. There are two categories of contents of human understanding: relations of ideas and matters of facts. We will focus on matters of facts because they are based on causality. Hume as a empirist is searching for a source of idea of causality in our experience. He finds out that we cant find it in objects of our minds themselves, but is based on relations among them. These relations are: contiguity, constant conjunction, priority of time in the cause before the effect and...

Die verschiedenen Konzepte fahrlässiger Mittäterschaft werden dargestellt und als nicht überzeugend befunden. Der Hauptteil der Arbeit analysiert nach der kursorischen Feststel-lung, dass das Analogieverbot der Figur nicht entgegensteht, konkret die Unbegründbarkeit fahrlässiger Mittäterschaft auf der Grundlage des höchstpersönlichen Schuldprinzips, das als verfassungsrechtlicher Grundsatz die Grundlage des gesamten Strafrechtssystems bildet. Die richtige Lösung bei fahrlässigem Zusammenwirken besteht in einer Vorverlagerung des Fahrlässigkeitsschuldvorwurfs unter Annahme eines psychischen Beitrags zum Erfolgseintritt. Dies entspricht sowohl dem Wesen der Fahrlässigkeitsdelikte als auch dem Schuldprinzip. / This study critically analyzes the various ideas for negligent co-perpetration and concludes that this legal idea is not convincing. The main part of this study is to analyze that negligent co-perpetration lacks justification based on the guilt principle, which is the foundation of the entire criminal justice system, although negligent co-perpetration could be established, since this does not violate the prohibition of analogy. And the desirable solution for cases of neg-ligent cooperation is concretely presented.: To advance the accusation of negligence in ac-cordance with the nature of the criminal negligence and the guilt principle. The criminal negligence is based on the single concept of perpetrator and the psychological contribution could establish the illegality of behaviour. In order to apply this solution, the illegality of neg-ligent behavior must always be proven. Then there is no need for negligent co-perpetration.

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Ce mémoire examine le thème des causes finales dans l’Éthique (1677) de Spinoza. À l’aide d’une classification quadripartite des types de discours sur les causes finales, il identifie d’abord en le finalisme théologico-métaphysique la cible philosophique visée par la critique de l’Appendice de la première partie de cet opus magnum. Radicalisant le postulat épistémologique cartésien voulant que la volonté divine ne puisse servir de principe explicatif aux phénomènes naturels, Spinoza rejette complètement l’idée selon laquelle le rapport entre Dieu et sa création puisse être conçu sous le mode de la cause finale et élabore, à l’ombre de cette critique, une conception de la causalité divine selon laquelle la production du monde est le résultat nécessaire de l’essence de Dieu. Ensuite, notre mémoire se penche sur le concept de conatus qui se situe à l’intersection de la philosophie naturelle et de l’ontologie. Nous explorons, selon trois hypothèses convoquées tour à tour pour comprendre son fonctionnement, la possibilité de dynamiques téléologiques dans la nature malgré la critique de l’Appendice. Finalement, la dernière partie de notre mémoire tente de faire la lumière sur l’articulation entre, d’une part, la philosophie naturelle et l’ontologie de Spinoza et, d’autre part, sa philosophie pratique. Nous démontrons ainsi l’utilité de faire appel aux causes finales pour expliquer sa conception de la psychologie humaine et pour rendre compte de la dernière station de son éthique, à savoir la beatitudo. De cette façon, nous entendons reconstruire le rapport qu’entretiennent les différents volets de la philosophie spinoziste avec la question des causes finales. / This paper examines the theme of the final causes in Spinoza’s Ethics (1677). Using a quadripartite classification of the types of discourse on the final causes, we define theological-metaphysical finalism as the main philosophical target of Spinoza’s critics. Radicalizing the epistemological Cartesian postulate according to which the divine will cannot serve as an explanatory principle for natural phenomena, Spinoza completely rejects the idea that the relationship between God and his creation can be conceived under the mode of the final cause and elaborates, in the shadow of this criticism, a conception of divine causality that presents the production of the world as a necessary result of God’s essence. Then, we briefly look at the concept of conatus, which is at the intersection of natural philosophy and ontology. We explore, according to three hypotheses, the possibility of teleological dynamics in nature. Finaly, the last part of our thesis tries to shed light on the articulation between, on the one hand, Spinoza’s natural philosophy and ontology and, on the other hand, his practical philosophy. We thus demonstrate the usefulness of using the final causes to explain human psychology and to account for the last station of the spinozist ethics, the beatitudo.

Relations that hold between causes and their effects are fundamental for a wide range of different sectors. Automatically finding sentences that express such relations may for example be of great interest for the economy or political institutions. However, for many languages other than English, a lack of training resources for this task needs to be dealt with. In recent years, large, pretrained transformer-based model architectures have proven to be very effective for tasks involving cross-lingual transfer such as cross-lingual language inference, as well as multilingual named entity recognition, POS-tagging and dependency parsing, which may hint at similar potentials for causality detection. In this thesis, we define causality detection as a binary labelling problem and use cross-lingual transfer to alleviate data scarcity for German and Swedish by using three different classifiers that make either use of multilingual sentence embeddings obtained from a pretrained encoder or pretrained multilingual language models. The source languages in most of our experiments will be English, for Swedish we however also use a small German training set and a combination of English and German training data.  We try out zero-shot transfer as well as making use of limited amounts of target language data either as a development set or as additional training data in a few-shot setting. In the latter scenario, we explore the impact of varying sizes of training data. Moreover, the problem of data scarcity in our situation also makes it necessary to work with data from different annotation projects. We also explore how much this would impact our result. For German as a target language, our results in a zero-shot scenario expectedly fall short in comparison with monolingual experiments, but F1-macro scores between 60 and 65 in cases where annotation did not differ drastically still signal that it was possible to transfer at least some knowledge. When introducing only small amounts of target language data, already notable improvements were observed and with the full German training data of about 3,000 sentences combined with the most suitable English data set, the performance for German in some scenarios even almost matches the state of the art for monolingual experiments on English. The best zero-shot performance on the Swedish data was even outperforming the scores achieved for German. However, due to problems with the additional Swedish training data, we were not able to improve upon the zero-shot performance in a few-shot setting in a similar manner as it was the case for German.

Juraj Bodík Abstract This thesis is dealing with the following problem: Let us have two stationary time series with heavy- tailed marginal distributions. We want to detect whether they have a causal relation, i.e. if a change in one of them causes a change in the other. The question of distinguishing between causality and correlation is essential in many different science fields. Usual methods for causality detection are not well suited if the causal mechanisms only manifest themselves in extremes. In this thesis, we propose a new method that can help us in such a nontraditional case distinguish between correlation and causality. We define the so-called causal tail coefficient for time series, which, under some assumptions, correctly detects the asymmetrical causal relations between different time series. We will rigorously prove this claim, and we also propose a method on how to statistically estimate the causal tail coefficient from a finite number of data. The advantage is that this method works even if nonlinear relations and common ancestors are present. Moreover, we will mention how our method can help detect a time delay between the two time series. We will show how our method performs on some simulations. Finally, we will show on a real dataset how this method works, discussing a cause of...

Miscellaneous examples of misleading statistical data or interpretation are presented in a form suitable for students in mathematics or Social Sciences during a first course of statistics. The aim is to promote critical thinking when confronted (mainly by the media or scientific papers) by information that is biased, incomplete, poorly defined, or deliberately oriented towards a preconceived target. Starting with the simple manipulation of Simpson paradox, the emphasis is put on the need for counfounding in the analysis of relationship between variables.

The often huge configuration spaces of modern software systems render the detection, prediction, and explanation of defects and inadvertent behaviors challenging tasks. Besides configurability, a further source of complexity is the integration of cyber-physical systems (CPSs). Behaviors in CPSs depend on quantitative aspects such as throughput, energy consumption, and probability of failure, which all play a central role in new technologies like 5G networks, tactile internet, autonomous driving, and the internet of things. The manifold environmental influences and human interactions within CPSs might also trigger reconfigurations, e.g., to ensure quality of service through adaptivity or fulfill user’s wishes by adjusting program settings and performing software updates. Such reconfigurations add yet another source of complexity to the quest of modeling and analyzing modern software systems. The main contribution of this thesis is a formal compositional modeling and analysis framework for systems that involve configurability, adaptivity through reconfiguration, and quantitative aspects. Existing modeling approaches for configurable systems are commonly divided into annotative and compositional approaches, both having complementary strengths and weaknesses. It has been a well-known open problem in the configurable systems community whether there is a hybrid approach that combines the strengths of both specification approaches. We provide a formal solution to this problem, prove its correctness, and show practical applicability to actual configurable systems by introducing a formal analysis framework and its implementation. While existing family-based analysis approaches for configurable systems mainly focused on software systems, we show effectiveness of such approaches also in the hardware domain. To explicate the impact of configuration options onto analysis results, we introduce the notion of feature causality that is inspired by the seminal counterfactual definition of causality by Halpern and Pearl. By means of several experimental studies, including a velocity controller of an aircraft system that required new techniques already for its analysis, we show how our notion of causality facilitates to identify root causes, to estimate the effects of features, and to detect feature interactions.:1 Introduction 2 Foundations 3 Probabilistic Configurable Systems 4 Analysis and Synthesis in Reconfigurable Systems 5 Experimental Studies 6 Causality in Configurable Systems 7 Conclusion