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The clinical presentation of social phobia suggests that alterations in theory of mind (TOM) may play a systematic role in the development and maintenance of the disorder. In the current study we leverage a quantitative neuroeconmic approach to probe for neural and behavior markers of cognitive TOM, as well as rejection estimation, with a particular focus on social phobia. Participants comprised a non-clinical sample that was divided into low (N = 10) and high (N = 7) social anxiety groups based on self-report. Participants completed a one-sided uncertainty ultimatum game designed to probe individual differences in cognitive TOM, as well as rejection estimation. Contrary to predictions, there were no behavioral differences between high and low social anxiety groups in terms of rejection estimation. Although no between-group differences emerged in the traditional TOM network, significant differences were observed in subregions of the striatum during formulation of offers, likely corresponding to estimation of reward expectations. As hypothesized, and consistent with past research, imaging results support the existence of a network regions implicated in TOM, including the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) and the temporal parietal junction (TPJ). In addition to these regions, additional areas, including the caudate and insula, were also active during mentalizing components of the task. Collectively, results suggest a novel role for expected-value computations in the development and maintenance of social phobia. / Master of Science

The purpose of the study was to explore children's understanding of mind shown in children's play in a preschool classroom. Previous research on children's theory of mind has relied on empirical studies utilizing several tasks, such as false belief tasks. Since children's emerging understanding of self and others is a complex process of entering a community of theories of mind (Nelson, Henseler, & Plesa, 2000), it is important to expand our understanding of children's theories of mind through qualitative inquiry with contextually-relevant methods. This study was guided by the following questions: How is children's theory of mind manifested in play and social interactions with other children in a preschool classroom? How do children negotiate differences between their own and others' theory of mind in their interactions? How are children's relationships extended through their understanding of each other's theories of mind? The main tool for exploration of the study was an interpretive analysis based on data collected through participant observation, along with dialogic interviews, audio and video taping, my reflections, and review of the literature. This study of one preschool classroom presents that theory of mind is not made up of isolated constructs but richly integrated states of mind. It appeared that interplay between social and cognitive factors was more evident in social contexts. Diverse aspects of children's theory of mind were discussed through detailed descriptions and interpretations of play episodes. A new way of looking at children's theory of mind should be more qualitative, contextual, and holistic. / Ph. D.

The present thesis belongs to the research area disability research and deal with specific aspects of cognition in individuals with Usher syndrome type 1 and 2. The subject has been investigated and is discussed within an interdisciplinary framework, though the theories applied and described are derived from the area of cognitive psychology. Usher syndrome is a rare genetic condition causing a combination of visual and hearing impairment: deafblindness. There is a congenital hearing loss that is profound in type 1 and moderate to severe in type 2. During mid-childhood symptoms of visual impairment, e.g. light sensitivity, emerge and a progressive loss of visual field follows as a result of the genetically caused eye disease Retinitis Pigmentosa. The syndrome has previously been well described with respect to the genetical and medical aspects, but there has been very little research with a cognitive perspective on the population. Studies 1 and 2 in the present thesis focused on children with Usher syndrome type 1 with cochlear implants and investigated phonological skills, lexical access, working memory and reading skill in the group. Studies 3 & 4 investigated the same cognitive abilities and theory of mind in adults with Usher syndrome type 2. In study 4 the performance on theory of mind in the adults with Usher syndrome type 2 was also compared to that of another group with genetically caused deafblindness: individuals with Alström syndrome. The results were that both the children and adults with Usher syndrome had significantly poorer phonological processing than the control groups with normal hearing. There was a large variation on performance on lexical access, especially in the group of children, however several individuals performed at the same level as the control group. Reading skill was found to be at level with the control groups’. There was also great variation in performance on ToM, however the majority of individuals performed similar to the control group with normal hearing and vision. The present project has resulted in some new knowledge on cognitive performance in  individuals with Usher syndrome type 1 and type 2. Performance in the participants with Usher syndrome can to a large extent can be understood by application of the models developed in previous research on populations with hearing impairment or deafness for understanding the impact of hearing with a hearing aid or cochlear implant. However, individuals with Usher syndrome experience additional difficulties in accessing information due to the progressive visual loss and the impact this has on performance is still largely unknown. Hence, the present project would recommend that interventions and support would be designed specifically to each individuals’ needs, with consideration of both the visual impairment and the hearing impairment. / Föreliggande avhandling tillhör ämnet handikappvetenskap och beskriver specifika kognitiva förmågor hos personer med Ushers syndrom typ 1 och 2. Avhandlingens ämne har undersökts utifrån ett tvärvetenskapligt perspektiv, även om de teorier som tillämpas och beskrivs huvudsakligen härrör inom området kognitiv psykologi. Ushers syndrom är en ovanlig genetisk åkomma som leder till kombinationen av syn- och hörselnedsättning: dövblindhet. Individer med typ 1 av syndromet har medfödd dövhet medan individer med typ 2 har en medfödd måttlig till grav hörselnedsättning. Någon gång i åldrarna 6-10 år börjar de första symptomen, till exempel nedsatt mörkerseende, på den genetiskt betingade progressiva synnedsättningen Retinitis Pigmentosa att framträda. Syndromet är väl beskrivet i forskningen med avseende på genetiska och medicinska aspekter, men det finns extremt lite tidigare forskning med kognitivt perspektiv om populationen. Studierna 1 och 2 i föreliggande avhandling fokuserade på barn med Ushers syndrom typ 1 och cochleaimplantat. Dessa studier undersökte fonologisk förmåga, lexikal access, arbetsminne och läsning i gruppen. Studie 3 undersökte samma kognitiva förmågor hos vuxna med typ 2 av syndromet. I studie 4 undersöktes även den sammansatta förmågan Theory of Mind hos de vuxna med typ 2 och deras prestation jämfördes både mot en kontroll grupp med normal hörsel och syn och en kontrollgrupp med annan typ av dövblindhet; Alström syndrom. Resultaten visade att både barnen och de vuxna med Ushers syndrom hade signifikant sämre fonologisk förmåga än kontrollgruppen med normal hörsel. Nivån på prestation varierade stort inom grupperna, särskilt mellan barnen med typ 1, och flera av individerna (barn och vuxna) presterade trots hörselnedsättningen på samma nivå som de normalhörande. Läsfärdigheten befanns vara i nivå med kontrollgrupperna. I den vuxna gruppen var det stor variation i prestation även på Theory of Mind, men de flesta av individerna presterade liknande som kontrollgruppen med normal hörsel och syn. Föreliggande projekt har resulterat i lite mer kunskap om kognitiva färdigheter hos individer med Ushers syndrom typ 1 och 2. De resultat som individerna med Ushers syndrome presterade kan till stor del förstås och tolkas genom tillämpning av teorier och modeller utvecklade för att den inverkan på kognitiva förmågor det har att ha nedsatt hörsel och höra med hjälp av hörselapparat eller cochleaimplantat. Dock tyder fynden i detta projekt även på att individer med Ushers syndrom på grund av den allvarliga synnedsättningen har ytterligare svårigheter att få tillgodogöra sig information, men i vilken utsträckning och på vilket sätt är ännu inte beskrivet. Utifrån fynden i föreliggande studie blev rekommendation att interventioner och stöd till personer med Ushers syndrom utformas specifikt till varje individ, med hänsyn taget både till hens grad av synnedsättning och hörselnedsättning.

Denna rapport beskriver utvecklingen av ett grafiskt gränssnitt för utvärderingsverktygetHanabi Challenge Benchmark. Utvärderingsverktyget grundar sig på det populärakortspelet Hanabi och presenterar sig själv som en ny riktlinje för forskningav artificiell intelligens med fokus på multi-agentbaserade kooperativa utmaningar.Syftet och målet med projektet är att analysera, tolka och visualisera datat frånverktyget för att skapa en bättre förståelse av verktyget.Ett grafiskt gränssnitt utvecklas sedan genom att använda kunskaper inom theoryof mind i kombination med teorier inom människa-datorinteraktion. Resultatenav detta projekt utvärderas genom ett småskaligt användarbarhetstest. Användareav olika åldrar, kön och nivåer av datorkunskap testade applikationen och ficksedan svara på en enkät. Resultatet av enkäten gjorde grund för utvärderingen avkvaliteten för det grafiska gränsnittet. / This report will describe the development of the Graphical User Interface (GUI) forthe Hanabi Challenge Benchmark. The benchmark is based on the popular cardgame Hanabi and presents itself as a new research frontier in artificial intelligencefor cooperative multi-agent challenges. The project’s intentions and goals are tointerpret and visualize the data output from the benchmark to give us a better understandingof it.A GUI was then developed by using knowledge within theory of mind in combinationwith theories within human-computer interaction. The results of this project wereevaluated through a small-scale usability test. Users of different ages, gender andlevels of computer knowledge tested the application and through a questionnaire,the quality of the GUI was assessed.

Pragmatic ability is crucial in everyday interactions. In populations of neurotypical individuals, pragmatic skill varies greatly. The neural mechanisms behind the variety, and the neural development of pragmatics remain to be explained. The present study aims to deepen the understanding of pragmatics’ neural basis, by investigating the functional connectivity (FC) between two pragmatically interesting brain clusters during a pragmatic task. The investigated clusters, located in the bilateral, dorsal precuneus and in the left superior inferior parietal cortex were found by Bendtz et al. (2022) to have higher activity for young adults with high pragmatic skill compared to young adults with low pragmatic skill. Mahal (2022) found that the clusters were more functionally connected for the high skilled group during rest. In this study, fMRI data acquired during a pragmatic task was used to analyze the FC between the beforementioned clusters and compare two groups of young adults, one with high pragmatic skill (n = 25) and one with low pragmatic skill (n = 24). The groups of young adults were also compared with a group of 16 - 18 year old adolescents (n = 12). The results revealed higher FC for the high skilled group in both analyses, where the difference between the high skilled group and the adolescents was significant (p=.02). FC-values did not correlate with age in neither age group. The results are suggested to reflect (1) a neural development of pragmatics in adolescence towards a potential pragmatic network that involve increased functional connections between two clusters previously identified as possible neural markers of pragmatic individual variation, and (2) a possible window of opportunity for pragmatic development during adolescence. / Den pragmatiska förmågan är avgörande i vardags-interaktioner. I neurotypiska populationer varierar pragmatisk förmåga mycket, och det är ännu inte klarlagt hur de precisa mekanismerna bakom variationen och utvecklingen av pragmatisk förmåga fungerar. Denna studies syfte är att fördjupa förståelsen för pragmatikens neurala grunder, genom att undersöka funktionell konnektivitet (FC) mellan två pragmatiskt intressanta hjärnkluster. De undersökta klustren, ett i bilaterala dorsala precuneus och ett i vänstra superiora inferiora parietala cortex, var mer aktiva för unga vuxna med hög pragmatisk förmåga jämfört med unga vuxna med låg pragmatisk förmåga (Bendtz et el. 2022). Mahal (2022) noterade att klustrena var mer funktionellt kopplade i vila för gruppen med hög pragmatisk förmåga. I denna studie användes fMRI-data från en pragmatisk uppgift för att analysera FC mellan de tidigare nämnda klustren, och jämföra två grupper med unga vuxna, en med hög pragmatisk förmåga (n = 25) och en med låg pragmatisk förmåga (n = 24). Grupperna med unga vuxna jämfördes också med en grupp 16 – 18 år gamla tonåringar (n = 12). Resultaten visade på en högre FC för gruppen med hög pragmatisk förmåga i båda analyser, där skillnaden mellan gruppen med hög pragmatisk förmåga och tonåringarna var signifikant (p = .02). Värdena av FC korrelerade inte med ålder i någon av åldersgrupperna. Resultaten föreslås återspegla (1) en neural utveckling av pragmatik under tonåren mot ett potentiellt pragmatiskt nätverk som involverar ökade funktionella kopplingar mellan två kluster som tidigare identifierats som potentiella neurala markörer för individuell variation av pragmatik och (2) en eventuell kritisk period för pragmatisk utveckling under tonåren.

Experiencing traumatic events has a high lifetime prevalence ranging between 60.7 and 76.2% across different countries (1). Exposure to traumatic events is associated with a higher risk for various mental disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (2, 3), which are related to high individual and societal costs (4). The development of interventions to prevent adverse mental health consequences following traumatic event exposure is therefore of vital importance. This, however, requires detailed knowledge about the underlying biological and psychological mechanisms involved in the association between traumatic events and psychopathology. Various risk factors at different levels have already been described in the last decades (5). Biological risk factors include genetic and epigenetic variations (6), alterations in the function of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis (7, 8) and the autonomic nervous system (9) as well as changes in brain structure and functioning (10). Psychological risk factors include impairments in cognitive abilities (11) and specific personality traits such as high trait anxiety (12) and maladaptive emotion regulation (13). Social risk factors include impaired interpersonal relations and stigmatization (14, 15). Further, clinical risk factors such as mental health history as well as previous traumatic experiences may also increase the risk for psychopathology after trauma exposure (16). Most of these factors are supposed to be associated with risk of psychopathology independent of the type of traumatic event. However, it is likely that specific traumatic events are associated with different constellations of risk factors, which has so far received little attention in the existing literature. Importantly, traumatic events explicitly include not only events that are personally experienced but also events that are witnessed by an observer (17). This includes witnessing someone being seriously hurt, seeing atrocities or witnessing dead bodies. Witnessed traumatic events are among the most frequent traumatic experiences (1). They are also of high current relevance in the contexts of natural disasters, terrorist attacks and military crises (16, 18, 19). The fact that individuals can develop psychopathological reactions to events that are actually experienced by others raises the question how the suffering of others is being processed. Based on theoretical models and findings from social cognition and neuroscience research, we propose that socio-affective and socio-cognitive mechanisms are involved in the processing and pathological consequences of witnessing traumatic events and could contribute to a better understanding of adverse reactions to this type of traumatic events.