This thesis compares four Czech translations of the novel Thérèse Raquin by the French writer Émile Zola. The introduction is focused on the source text and its author. Then the thesis deals with the reception of Thérèse Raquin in the Czech culture and refers also to its entry on the Russian cultural scene. The second part of the thesis is focused on an analysis of the Czech translations. This analysis considers the background in which each text was produced, especially from the point of view of time, and it aims to describe not only the language aspects of each translation, but also the global approach of the translator.

The main subject of the presented work is the question of power within the context of sociological theory, and in relation to the mechanism of psychological mimesis and the phenomenon of the sacred. Our starting point is René Girard's mimetic theory, which systematizes the relationship between the mechanism of psychological mimesis and the sacred - in the light of the phenomenon of violence. We, firstly, present Girard's mimetic theory, explicate its main concepts, and situate all into a broader context. Further, we critically examine Girard's theoretical scheme and come to the conclusion that his theoretical and conceptual framework calls for a revision, if it is to be utilized within the context of sociology and social theory. Consequently, we try to "sociologize" Girard's thinking. First, we position his line of thought into the wider sociological context, and then examine his theory in the light of thinking of two classical sociologists, Gabriel Tarde and Émile Durkheim. We then project this examination into a theoretical and conceptual synthesis on the basis of which we formulate our own conceptual scheme, which is based on the assumption of psychological mimesis as an anthropological constant, and which overcomes the main shortcomings of Girard's theoretical framework. On the basis of this...

Dans la perspective des chercheurs qui développent une science, la réalité de sa fondation se présente comme la solution imaginaire de quatre énigmes relatives à l’unité et aux progrès de leurs travaux : 1- La fondation est la source stable des principes d’une science qui se maintiennent au fil de ses développements. 2 – Elle donne à lire la finalité commune des développements individuels de ses recherches. 3 – Elle opère une rupture avec la pensée antérieure en définissant le projet d’un savoir original et plus désirable que ce que l’on croyait savoir auparavant. 4 – Elle institue l’esprit distinctif d’une recherche qui estime que le savoir qu’elle procure vaut la peine d’être développé. En sociologie, il y a consensus pour affirmer que la discipline est fondée, mais on ne s’entend ni sur la ou les œuvres qui la fondent ni même sur l’époque où elle débute. À partir d’une analyse comparée des sociologies d’Auguste Comte et d’Émile Durkheim avec d’autres œuvres depuis les études de l’homme et de la cité d’Aristote, nous explorons la réalité d’une fondation qui pourrait résoudre ces quatre énigmes ainsi qu’une cinquième qui est particulière à cette science sociale : 5 – La fondation de la sociologie initie un mode d’organisation de la recherche incompatible avec le modèle kuhnien de la science normale qui progresse dans le développement d’un paradigme commun. / In the perspective of researchers developing a science, the foundation is presented as the imaginary solution to four enigmas regarding the unity and progress of their work: 1- Its foundation is the stable source of the principles of a science that remain throughout its development. 2- It provides a common finality of the individual developments of its research. 3- It contrasts from previous schools of thought by defining the project of an original and more desirable one. 4- It introduces the distinctive characteristics of a research, emphasizing that the knowledge it brings is worth it. In sociology, there is general agreement about sociology having a beginning, only no one agrees on the works that make it, nor the time it all started. By comparing the works of Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim with other works since Aristotle, we explore those four enigmas and even a fifth one that is specific to sociology: 5- The foundation of sociology initiates an organisation of research that is incompatible with the kuhnian model of normal science.

Entre la fin du XIXe siècle et la seconde guerre mondiale, les sciences ont été bouleversées par la critique de la logique expérimentale du progrès et par la remise en question du déterminisme qui structuraient et justifiaient la recherche des lois de la nature. Ces événements ont marqué et catalysé un mouvement général de réorganisation de la recherche, de révision de ses visées de connaissances, de ses méthodes, des intentions pratiques de la science et de ses significations. Ce mémoire apprécie l’apport de cet épisode de l’histoire des sciences à travers les transformations de la sociologie de Émile Durkheim et Marcel Mauss, héritiers de la tradition des sciences modernes ayant contribué à l’élaboration des cadres actuels de la recherche. Rapprochée d’autres entreprises savantes, l’étude de ce cas alimente des discussions plus générales sur le progrès des sciences et la vocation morale de la recherche contemporaine. / Between the end of the nineteenth century and the Second World War, science has been shaken by criticism which aimed at experimental logic and determinism. Both principles structured and justified research on the laws of nature. These events have provoked a general movement in the reorganisation of research, in the revision of its objectives and its methods, as well as the practical intentions of science and its meaning. This study evaluates the contribution of this episode in the history of science through the changes in the sociology of Émile Durkheim and Marcel Mauss. While taking into consideration other scientific projects, this case study provides more general reflections on the progress of science and the moral purpose of contemporary research.

Tableau d’honneur de la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales, 2014-2015 / Ce travail de maîtrise a pour but de confronter les théories sociales de Niklas Luhmann et de Jürgen Habermas, afin d’éclairer les défis que le monde contemporain pose à la pensée philosophique. À la suite d’un examen approfondi, qui nous mènera à revisiter les traditions classique (Weber et Durkheim) et moderne (Parsons) de la sociologie, il sera possible de mettre en évidence les implications qui s’ensuivent pour les concepts de société, de rationalité et de normativité. Plutôt que de prendre parti pour l’une des théories en question, nous décèlerons leur signification philosophique en exposant la manière dont elles abordent le phénomène de la complexité. Nous discutons enfin de la place qu’occupe l’humanisme au sein de la théorie sociale contemporaine. / This M.A. thesis compares the social theories of Niklas Luhmann and Jürgen Habermas. Its main goal is to cast light upon the problems that philosophical thinking encounters in its attempt to understand modern society. The Luhmann-Habermas debate is presented from a comparative perspective, which will then lead into key problems of both classical (Weber and Durkheim) and modern (Parsons) traditions of sociology. It is our contention that this debate reveals two alternative standpoints from which the concepts of society, rationality, and normativity can be conceived. Instead of endorsing one theory or the other, this thesis would rather display their philosophical significance by addressing the manner in which they deal with complexity. Finally, the place of humanism within contemporary social theory is examined.

Au moment où la prostitution semble exploser dans les villes, la fille des rues envahit la littérature de la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle. Cette héroïne nouvelle acquiert bien vite le premier rôle de ce qui devient un sous-genre romanesque à part entière, le « roman de fille », dont on mettra en évidence la structure et les motifs privilégiés. Un détour par les discours médicaux, moraux et sociaux du temps sur la femme et la prostituée nous permettra de mieux appréhender le fonctionnement et les significations multiples que ce personnage revêt en littérature. Figure du manque et de la dépossession, la prostituée interroge la vision masculine du féminin, mais elle traduit aussi les inquiétudes des contemporains face aux nombreuses mutations sociales, économiques et politiques du siècle ; elle se fait le reflet d’angoisses existentielles sur le rapport au corps, aux autres et à la mort, ainsi que le lieu privilégié de réflexions artistiques et esthétiques / While prostitution was exploding within the cities, the character of the prostitute flourished in the second part of the nineteenth-Century literature. This new heroine quickly gets the leading part in a soon-To-Be proper literary fictional sub-genre, the “prostitute novel”, whose structure and motifs will be pointed out in our research. We will evoke medical, moral and social discourses about women and prostitutes in the 19th century in order to grasp the numerous roles this character can assume in literature. As a protagonist of the loss and deprivation, the prostitute questions the masculine vision of women, but she also embodies her time’s worries about the multiple social, economical and political transformations happening. She also holds a mirror to existential anxieties about the relationship to the Body, the Other and Death, and appears to be a privileged character for artistic and aesthetic considerations

La partie création de ce mémoire se veut soutenue par une tension narrative reliée à la curiosité suscitée par le personnage principal, de prime abord énigmatique, qui se dévoile de façon capricieuse par un changement constant de focalisation et de temporalité. Nathan vit à une ère où l’humanité a frôlé l’extinction, et où tout est à repenser après l’annihilation du virus ramenant les morts à la vie. N’ayant pas été témoin de ces horreurs, ses plus grandes préoccupations concernent son cheminement vers l’authenticité. Saltimbanque de métier, il voyage de communauté en communauté, où chacune a fait ses choix pour recréer le monde. Sa volonté de prôner l’art dans un processus de reconstruction sociale et sa poursuite d’une image perdue le pousseront toujours plus loin dans ses pérégrinations; vers des réalités qui le conduiront à redéfinir son univers. La partie essai s’interroge sur les procédés formant la tension narrative des romans d’Émile Ajar, pseudonyme laissant deviner la plume expérimentée de Romain Gary qui se réinvente dans l’anonymat. L’attention est centrée sur les jeux de narration, le rôle actanciel des personnages et l’orchestration formelle des récits, à savoir s’ils sont assez similaires pour lier les opus et les constituer en une série unifiée. Cette réflexion à la recherche de l’essence de l’oeuvre ajarienne, touchante par ses antihéros souvent démunis dans leur quête existentielle, a été une inspiration pour la rédaction de Le jour où la Terre en avait vu d’autres. Les rêves de Nathan sont racontés à la première personne, rejoignant certaines modalités ajariennes où la psyché des protagonistes se révèle par une narration au “je”. Les questionnements sur la tension narrative ont été déclencheurs de cette première démarche d’écriture romanesque, même si elle est située dans un cadre complètement autre et use d’une plume bien différente de celle d’Ajar. / The creative part of this Master’s thesis is based on curiosity about the main character, at first enigmatic, who is to be revealed in an unpredictable way with continuous focal and temporal changes. Nathan lives in an era in which humanity came close to extinction, and where everything is to be rethought after the annihilation of the virus that brings the dead back to life. As a saltimbanco, he travels from community to community, in which each one has made choices to recreate the world. His will to advocate art in the social reconstruction and his pursuit of a lost image will always drag him further in his peregrinations, towards realities that will lead him to redefine his universe. The essay part examines the literary techniques that create the narrative tension of novels authored by Émile Ajar, pseudonym of the accomplished writer, Romain Gary, who reinvents himself anonymously. The attention is centered on the narration, actantial roles of the characters and formal organization of the story, to ascertain if they are similar enough to link them in a unified series. This reflection searches for the essence of Ajar’s work which, along with the moving existential quests of the characters, have been an inspiration for writing Le jour où la Terre en avait vu d’autres. Nathan’s dreams are related in a first person narration, in accordance with some of Ajar’s modalities where the characters’ psyches reveal themselves through that perspective. The ponderings on the narrative tension have been the trigger for this first fiction writing experience, even though it takes place in a completely different setting.

Émile Augier, Alexandre Dumas fils et Victorien Sardou figurent parmi les dramaturges les plus importants du Second Empire (1852-1870). À travers cette étude, nous nous proposons d’examiner les comédies de mœurs de ces auteurs sous l’angle de la sociopoétique pour ce qui concerne les règles du savoir-vivre et les bonnes manières, examinées dans leur fonction dramatique et théâtrale. Nous nous sommes attachée à l’étude de l’esthétique théâtrale du savoir-vivre qui englobe le lieu (Paris), les personnages (les mondaines et demi-mondaines, les mondains et les domestiques) et les moyens de communication à distance (la lettre et les cartes). Nous nous sommes ensuite penchée sur le caractère spectaculaire du savoir-vivre, à savoir la «distinction» ou la mise en scène de soi, la gestuelle des salutations, les «toilettes tapageuses» et les arts de la table. Les composantes des codes de politesse permettent de parler d’une dramaturgie du savoir-vivre qui caractérise les comédies de mœurs. Cette dramaturgie, que d’aucuns estiment surannée, reflète toutefois les usages représentatifs d’une époque. / Émile Augier, Alexandre Dumas fils and Victorien Sardou appear among the most important dramatists of the Second Empire era (1852-1870). In this thesis, comedies of manners of these authors are considered from a “socio-poetical” point of view. Rules of etiquette and good manners are analyzed in their dramatic and theatrical function. Theatrical aesthetic of manners which includes locality (Paris), characters (mondaines and demi-mondaines, mondains and servants), and media of communication (letters and cards), is examined first. Afterwards, spectacular aspects of good manners are studied : “distinction”, greeting’s gesture, outfits and “arts de la table”. Components of rules of etiquette lead to think of a certain dramaturgy of good manners which are characteristic of comedy of manners. This dramaturgy, which is considered as ‘old fashioned’ by some people, reflects however typical manners of an epoch.

Se a publicação dos dois volumes dos Problemas de linguística geral de Émile Benveniste (1966; 1974) se configura em um marco para os estudos enunciativos, a publicação de suas Últimas aulas no Collège de France (1968 e 1969) (2012) – obra estabelecida geneticamente por Jean-Claude Coquet e Irène Fenoglio a partir de manuscritos do linguista e de seus ouvintes – marca, por sua vez, uma volta à discussão de sua reflexão semiológica. Reflexão formulada por Benveniste no decorrer dos anos 60 e apresentada, sobretudo, em seu artigo “Semiologia da língua” (1969/1974). Nessa perspectiva, no presente trabalho, propõe-se a semiologia da língua de Benveniste como objeto de pesquisa. Ao contrário dos estudos correntes na área, neste, não é enfatizado o projeto da metassemântica apresentado programaticamente no final de “Semiologia da língua”, mas se busca compreender a ideia de uma semiologia da língua e o efeito dessa reflexão semiológica sobre o lugar da linguagem nas ciências humanas. Para tanto, de um ponto de vista que parte da noção de historicidade (MESCHONNIC, 1995) e que, através de uma composição vida-obra-teoria (condições de enunciação), busca aprofundar a discussão a respeito do pensamento de Benveniste, realiza-se um estudo teórico de diferentes textos de seus Problemas de linguística geral tomados em contraponto com os manuscritos que compõem suas Últimas aulas. O trabalho se apresenta em três capítulos, ao longo dos quais são formuladas e defendidas duas hipóteses, a primeira referente à ideia de que, além da metassemântica, a semiologia da língua desenvolvida pelo linguista engloba outras relações envolvendo a língua; a segunda referente à ideia de que, com a semiologia da língua, Benveniste torna incontornável uma reflexão a respeito da linguagem nas ciências humanas, uma vez que a língua (e somente a língua, devido a sua dupla significância) é o único sistema que pode interpretar a si mesmo e aos outros sistemas semiológicos. Esse fato faz com que o linguista confira um lugar central à língua em campos do saber fora da linguística. / If the publication of the two volumes of Problems in General Linguistics by Émile Benveniste (1966; 1974) is a landmark for enunciative studies, the publication of his Dernières Leçons. Collège de France 1968 et 1969 [Last Lectures at Collège de France (1968 and 1969)] (2012) – work genetically established by Jean-Claude Coquet and Irène Fenoglio based on the manuscripts of the linguist and his listeners – marks a return to the discussion of his semiological reflection. A reflection Benveniste developed during the 1960s and presented mainly in his article “The Semiology of Language” (1969/1974). Within this perspective, the object of research in this paper is Benveniste's semiology of language. Unlike current studies in this area, this one does not emphasize the project of meta-semantics presented programmatically at the end of “The Semiology of Language”, but seeks to understand the idea of a semiology of language and the effect of this semiological reflection on the place of language in the human sciences. In order to do that, from a standpoint that is based on the notion of historicity (MESCHONNIC, 1995) and that seeks to further the discussion on Benveniste’s thinking through a composition life-work-theory (conditions of enunciation), a theoretical study of different texts of his Problems in General Linguistics is carried out, taken in contrast with the manuscripts that make up his Dernières Leçons. The study is developed in three chapters, along which two hypotheses are formulated and defended. The first refers to the idea that, in addition to the meta-semantics, the semiology of language developed by the linguist includes other relationships involving language. The second refers to the idea that, with the semiology of language, Benveniste makes a reflection on language in the human sciences inevitable, since language (and only language, because of its double significance) is the only system that can interpret itself and other semiological systems. This fact leads the linguist to put language in a central place in fields of knowledge other than linguistics.

Esta pesquisa, por meio da análise de um livro didático de língua inglesa, propõe o diálogo entre o campo de ensino-aprendizagem de língua inglesa e a perspectiva enunciativa de linguagem de Émile Benveniste. O estudo procura comprovar a hipótese de que há livros didáticos em língua inglesa que apresentam atividades que envolvem interlocuções possíveis de serem abordadas em sala de aula por uma perspectiva enunciativa da linguagem. Com o diálogo entre os estudos linguísticos de Émile Benveniste – reflexões sobre linguagem, língua, enunciação e discurso, presentes em textos pertencentes aos Problemas de linguística geral I e Problemas de linguística geral II – e os estudos voltados à aquisição de segunda língua, tornou-se possível operar deslocamentos, que resultaram em um novo conhecimento sobre essa relação enunciação e ensino-aprendizagem de segunda língua, com a consideração dos seguintes aspectos: a) a intersubjetividade na linguagem; b) a situação de discurso e a atribuição de referência; c) a relação forma-sentido; d) os valores culturais impressos no discurso. Tais aspectos, tratados teoricamente nos dois primeiros capítulos, foram norteadores da metodologia no terceiro capítulo e da análise no quarto capítulo. Na análise, foram selecionados quatro grupos de atividades do livro didático de língua inglesa Alive! 8, obra distribuída para a rede pública de ensino por intermédio do Plano Nacional do Livro Didático no ano de 2017. Observou-se que as atividades analisadas: a) apresentam marcas de intersubjetividade, visto que o livro didático prevê que a comunicação intersubjetiva se concretize em sala de aula; b) atuam como provocadoras de referência e permitem que o locutor-aluno atribua essas referências pelo discurso; c) consideram forma e sentido como instâncias interdependentes, permitindo aos locutores-alunos que eles compreendam e reconheçam as unidades da língua inglesa em sala de aula como integradas umas às outras; d) abordam questões relacionadas a costumes e valores das duas línguas envolvidos no processo de aprendizagem da segunda língua. Todavia, foi possível verificar que algumas das atividades analisadas necessitam ter seu escopo ampliado no contexto de sala de aula de língua inglesa. Dessa forma, a pesquisa aponta, na conclusão, que o professor é o responsável por garantir que as atividades presentes no livro didático possam ser abordadas por uma perspectiva enunciativa da linguagem, trazendo contribuições ao processo de aprendizagem de inglês como segunda língua. / This research, through the analysis of an English textbook, proposes the dialogue between the field of teaching and learning of English and Émile Benveniste’s enunciative perspective of language. The study aims to prove the hypothesis that there are textbooks in English that present activities that involve possible dialogues to be addressed in the classroom through an enunciative perspective of the language. With the dialogue between Émile Benveniste's linguistic studies – reflections about language, utterance and discourse present in the texts belonging to Problems of general linguistics I and Problems of general linguistics II – and studies on second language acquisition, it became possible to operate displacements, which resulted in a new knowledge about this relation between enunciation and second language teaching and learning, considering the following aspects: a) the intersubjectivity in language; b) the situation of discourse and reference attribution; c) the form-meaning relationship; d) the cultural values printed in the discourse. These aspects were considered theoretically in the first two chapters, and they guided the methodology in the third chapter and the analysis in the fourth chapter. In the analysis, four groups of activities were selected from the English textbook Alive! 8, a book distributed to the public school system through the National Program of Textbook in 2017. It was observed that the analyzed activities: a) present marks of intersubjectivity, since the textbook predicts that intersubjective communication is materialized in the classroom; b) act as reference provocateurs and allow the student to assign these references through discourse; c) consider form and meaning as interdependent instances, allowing students to understand and recognize the units of language in the classroom as integrated to each other; d) address issues related to customs and values of the two languages involved in the process of learning the second language. However, it was possible to verify that some of the analyzed activities need to have their scope expanded in the context of English classroom. In this way, the research indicates, in the conclusion, that the teacher is responsible for ensuring that the activities in the textbook can be approached by an enunciative perspective of language, bringing contributions to the process of learning English as a second language.