國立政治大學英國語文學系在職碩士班 碩士論文提要 論文名稱：台灣高中生英文寫作中連接詞使用之研究 指導教授：尤雪瑛博士 研究生：洪孟芬 論文提要內容： 本研究旨在分析高中生在英文寫作中如何使用連接詞，並對學生使用連接詞的誤用現象加以分析，以期了解學生使用連接詞的原則。本研究採用Halliday and Hasan的連接詞分類法，並對中、英文的連接詞加以對比分析，從中發現中英文連接詞的相異及相同點，及可能造成學生混淆的問題。本研究以兩階段驗證假設。第一階段以192篇的學生作文為分析樣本，第二階段以問卷從中發現學生使用連接詞的困難。 本研究採用質的分析方法，分析內容涵蓋：在學生作文中（一） 連接詞的誤用狀況（二）影響學生使用連接詞的因素。 本研究結果如下：學生在使用連接詞時，會受到本身母語的影響，造成某些連接詞的使用錯誤。而中、英語連接詞本身的複雜性，易造成學生的使用困難。 本研究最後提出在英語教學上的建議：在課堂上教導連接詞時，應加強語意方面的探討，並訓練學生正確文句之間的邏輯關係。 / ABSTRACT This study aims to investigate the use of conjunctions in English compositions written by senior high school students in Taiwan. Its purpose is to discuss senior high school students’ performance in using conjunctions, to discover common errors made by students, to find out possible explanations for students’ errors, and to provide teachers implications of how to reduce learners’ errors in English composition teaching. In this study, Halliday & Hasan’s taxonomy of English conjunctions and a contrastive analysis of English and Chinese conjunctions are provided as the basis. Those potential problems in using English conjunctions for Chinese ESL learners are predicted and tested. There are two stages of verification precedure. The predictions are first verified with a data corpus totaled 192 written texts, which are collected from Bai-ling senior high school in Taiwan. Then, a questionnaire is used to reexamine and confirm most of the predictions between English and Chinese conjunctions. The study reveals that Taiwan senior high school students do receive certain influence from their first language--Chinese. Consequently, the outcome is regarded as capable of rendering valuable implications for ESL teachers and learners as well as researchers.

本研究旨在探討連接詞對台灣高職生英文閱讀理解的影響，分別從以下兩方面來探討：一、連接詞是否對閱讀理解有幫助？二、那些類的連接詞較簡單？哪些類較困難？ 總共有七十五位高職生參與本實驗研究，他們共接受了「有」、「無」連接詞兩種版本的閱讀測驗，以及一個克漏字測驗，所收集的資料更進一步分為高低程度來探討，並加以統計的方式分析。 結果顯示連接詞在英文閱讀理解上的確有正面的影響，然而，高程度組在整篇文章的文意的理解上受益較大，相反地，低程度組則在細節的了解上所獲得的幫助較多，此發現說明了高程度的學生所採取的閱讀方式為「由上往下」，而低程度的學生則採取「由下往上」的方式。本研究也發現了在連接詞本身的理解上，由簡單到困難的順序為：遞增類(additive)、時間類(temporal)、轉折類(adversative)、 因果類(causal)，此順序沒有高低程度的不同，表示語言本身句型結構的難易與相對的認知困難度才是決定此順序的關鍵。同時，越簡單的連接詞，如：遞增類，高低程度學生的表現差異越大，而最困難的連接詞：因果類，高低程度學生的表現並無不同。最後，錯誤分析發現了高程度的學生對自己選擇的答案較有自信，而低程度的學生則傾向用遞增類來取代其他類的連接詞。 / This present study aims to investigate the influence of logical conjunctions on Taiwanese vocational high school students’ English reading comprehension. It mainly discusses whether logical conjunctions play a facilitating role as well as determines what types of logical relations are more challenging and what types are easier. This study adopted an experimental design. A total of 75 EFL students participated in the experiment. They received two versions of reading comprehension tests: texts with / without logical conjunctions first and then a cloze test. The data collected from the high and low groups were compared and analyzed statistically. The results confirm the effects of conjunctions and the sequence of comprehension difficulty among the four types of relations. Logical conjunctions are facilitating in EFL students’ reading comprehension. They are beneficial to the high group in overall comprehension of the texts while they are more helpful to the low group in the understanding of detailed information. This finding suggests that higher achievers adopt a more top-down approach in reading whereas lower achievers adopt a more bottom-up approach. As for the sequence of comprehension difficulty, the results revealed an ascending difficulty order: additive, temporal, adversative, and causal conjunctions. The fact that no different order was found between the high and low groups suggests that linguistic complexity and cognitive processing difficulty are more likely the causes of this order instead of language proficiency. Also, it is found that the gap between the two groups is becoming widened as the difficulty level is decreasing. For example, the high group performed much better than the low group in additive conjunctions, but it performed as poorly as the low group did in causal ones. Finally, error analysis also discovered that higher achievers are more confident and capable in choosing their own answers while lower achievers tend to substitute additive conjunctions for the other ones.

本研究旨在探討臺灣的大學生連接詞的理解與使用。除比較大學生對「句內」及「句間」連接詞的使用外，所閱讀文章內容的熟悉與否是否影響其使用連接詞，以及英文能力與連接詞使用能力之間的相關性，也是本研究的重點所在。 　　一百三十五位國立臺灣工業技術學院大一學生參與此研究。其測驗結果顯示：（一）英文能力愈強者，使用連接詞的能力也愈強；（二）「句間」連接詞比「句內」連接詞較難理解使用；（三）對文章內容的熟悉並未顯著幫助受試者選用正確連接詞。 / The present study was designed to investigate college-level Chinese students' use of English conjunctions at the intra- and inter-sentential levels, the interaction of content familiarity and use of conjunctions, and the relationship between English proficiency and ability to use conjunctions. It aimed at understanding their weakness in using conjunctions and in comprehending expository texts, and thus providing some pedagogical implications for teaching English conjunctions and reading comprehension. 　　One hundred and thirty-five freshmen at National Taiwan Institute of Technology participated in the present study. One hundred and three of them were engineering majors and thirty-two of them were business majors. They were given a simulated TOEFL test and a conjunction test. The conjunction test was composed of a sentence-completion test, which was designed to test subjects' ability to use conjunctions within sentences (intrasentential), and a three-passage rational multiple-choice cloze, which was designed to measure subjects' ability to use conjunctions in extended discourses (intersentential) and the interaction of content familiarity and the ability to use conjunctions. 　　The results showed that (1) college-level Chinese students were more competent in using English conjunctions at the intrasentential level than at the intersentential level, (2) most of the subjects did not seem to comprehend logical development better and thus did not use conjunctions more accurately in content-familiar texts than in content unfamiliar texts, and (3) subjects with higher level of English proficiency exhibited greater ability in using conjunctions both intrasententially and intersententially.

本篇論文的主旨在研究「也」「又」「還」三個連接詞在漢語敘述文中的 篇章功能。過去對於這三個連接詞的研究，多半偏向句法和語意關係的探 討，而事實上，我們還可以從另一個角度來分析這三個連接詞，那就是探 討它們的篇章功能。研究這三個連接詞的篇章功能之前，我們首先根據 Matthiessen 和 Thompson 的模式分析了漢語句群間的凝聚關係(text relations among combined clauses)。 此一分析不僅進一步證明「也」 「又」「還」確實可以作為連接詞使用，同時更清楚地呈現出「也」「又 」「還」所連接的子句之間的關係，以及這些子句本身與其前後子句所形 成的凝聚關係。「也」「又」「還」作連接詞用時，是用來連接一組語意 相關的子句。它們都可以用來表示聯合關係；不過，「也」和「又」還可 以用來表示對照關係。表示聯合關係時，「也」連接二個或二個以上平列 的子句；「又」也是連接平列的子句，然而「又」進一步加強這些子句所 呈現的聯合關係；「還」連接帶有輕重之別的子句。至於如何知道「又」 所加強的是什麼，以及如何決定那個子句比較重，這都得依上下文而定。 表示對照關係時，「也」和「又」都是用來連接二個看似相反，而實質上 卻相輔相成的子句，差別是「又」所連接的二個子句呈現出說話者矛盾的 心理狀態。上文所提出的假設，經由我們分析書寫的語料而獲得驗證。除 此之外，我們還做了一項問卷調查，目的在測試中國人如何使用這三個連 接詞，這項問卷的結果顯示我們的假設大致正確。最後，我們依據語料的 分析及問卷結果的討論，將上文所提的假設做了小幅度的修正，使其更能 明確地說明這三個連接詞的篇章功能。

本研究旨在探討漢語母子對話中兒童「然後」的使用與其功能。研究語料來自於八位年齡介於兩歲七個月到五歲四個月的兒童，並分成兩組：年紀較小之兒童(平均兩歲十一個月)與年紀較大之兒童(平均四歲十個月)。本研究主要根據Su (1998)的分類，把兒童「然後」分為連接詞(connective)及言談標記(discourse marker)的使用。連接詞的使用有時間性(temporal)、遞增性(additive)、因果性(causal)及轉折性(contrast)四項功能。言談標記的使用有填補語(verbal filler)、主題接續(topic succession)及主題再開(resumptive opener)三項功能。研究結果顯示年紀較大之組的兒童使用「然後」的次數較多。隨著兒童年齡增長，言談標記使用的增加比連接詞的增加還多。「然後」當連接詞時，時間性功能使用得最多。與Yeh (2011)「然後」在敘述文中的研究比較，其顯示出「然後」在敘述文中出現得比在對話中還多。另外，時間性功能隨著年紀減少，而遞增性及因果性隨著年齡增加，可用Winskel (2003)的「概念複雜性」(conceptual complexity)來解釋。「然後」當言談標記時，兒童填補語使用得最多，其隨著年紀增加而減少使用。主題再開兩組都使用得少，而主題接續只出現在年紀較大之組別。總結，兒童在「然後」的使用上有發展上的不同。 / The study investigated Mandarin-speaking children’s different use of ranhou at different ages in mother-child conversations. Eight subjects aged from 2;7 to 5;4 were divided into two groups; a younger group (mean age: 2;11) and an older group (mean age: 4;10). In this study, the children’s use of ranhou was categorized into connective use and discourse marker use, mainly based on Su’s (1998) classification. The connective use of ranhou includes temporal, additive, causal, and contrast functions. The discourse marker use of ranhou contains verbal filler, topic succession, and resumptive opener functions. The results showed that older children used more tokens of ranhou than younger children. As children got older, the discourse marker use of ranhou increased much more than the connective use of ranhou. In the connective use of ranhou, temporal ranhou was the most frequent function. Compared with Yeh’s (2011) study of ranhou in narratives, it may be suggested that ranhou occurs more in narratives and less in conversations. Additionally, the temporal function decreased with age whereas the additive and causal functions increased with age, which could be explained by Winskel’s (2003) conceptual complexity. In the discourse marker use of ranhou, the verbal filler function was used the most and decreased with age. The tokens of the resumptive opener function were few in both groups, and the topic succession function only occurred in the older group. To conclude, the results suggest that there is a developmental difference in children’s use of ranhou.

某些字彙可預告句子間的關係及文章架構。這些特殊的預測性字彙包含了連接詞及一部份的名詞、動詞、形容詞及副詞。本研究的目的是探討學習這類預測性字彙在提昇學生閱讀能力的成效。 研究對象是桃園縣某所高中104位三年級學生。研究主要工具包括一份評估學生閱讀能力的全民英檢考題；兩份問卷用來調查學生對於預測性字彙及文章架構的認知；及最後進行的訪談以了解教學成效。研究過程分為三個步驟: (1)前測--- 閱讀能力測驗及問卷。以測驗成績將分數高於平均的學生分至A組而分數低於平均的學生分至B組，來調查不同程度的學生對此教學的回應有無任何差異。而問卷則是調查學生對所要教授的預測性字彙及文章架構有無任何背景知識 (2)教學實驗---為期四個月的預測性字彙與文章結構教學 (3)後測--- 問卷及個別訪談，以瞭解學生在學過預測性字彙與文章結構後，在提昇閱讀能力方面有無任何成效。 研究結果發現，此教學實驗對學生的英文閱讀能力有正面影響。學生回應在閱讀時的速度及在興趣和信心這兩方面都比在接受教學之前提升。A組的學生在有關篇章結構的閱讀測驗題目中表現較B組學生好。同時A組的學生也比較知道如何使用預測性字彙來解析文章結構。至於學生常用的字彙為連接詞。 / Certain lexical items are strongly associated with identifiable clause and textual patterns. In other words, they represent the organization of discourse. These words include connectives and a set of open-system vocabulary with similar properties like connectives. The purpose of the study is to investigate how the instruction in lexical signals and pattern may facilitate reading comprehension. The researcher also examines what kind of predictive words are used most frequently in the process. One hundred and four students, from a senior high school in Taoyuan, were the participants of the study. The reading comprehension test of GEPT, intermediate level (LTTC, 2002), was used to classify the subjects into two sub-groups before the instruction. Group A was the one with the scores above the mean of the test scores. Group B was the one with the scores below the mean. The researcher classified the two groups so as to examine if the subjects in the two groups had any different feedback or response to the instruction. A questionnaire was applied to investigate if the subjects had any idea about the use of signals and patterns before the instruction. Then, a four-month signal and pattern instruction was conducted on all the participants in the study. After the instruction, the second questionnaire was applied to the subjects to gather their feedbacks and responses to the instruction. Furthermore, 30 subjects were randomly selected for interview to get in-depth information for qualitative analysis. The results show the instruction had a positive effect on the subjects when they read English texts. Their reading speed, interests and confidence increased after the teaching of organizing signals and text patterns. And they were confident in using signals to spell out clause patterns. However, some of the subjects had problems of identifying textual patterns, which usually involve several clause patterns combined together to form a text. The signals they used most frequently were connectives, the most overt signals in texts. And the subjects in Group A performed better than those in Group B when making use of predictive signals to spell out patterns. The result shows a strong relationship between the subjects’ English proficiency level and their manipulation of discourse-organizing words and textual patterns.

本研究旨在探討台灣英文教科書與學生英文作文佳作中，敘述文與說明文中的因果關係使用。因為因果關係在閱讀與寫作中很常見，所以對學生來說，學會如何正確使用因果關係是件極為重要的事。根據李(2003)的研究，她發現因果關係對學生來說是最難學好的因果關係。因此，本研究希望能了解教科書中的敘述文與說明文是如何介紹因果關係給學生。同時，本研究亦希望能得知學生如何在不同文體的英文作文中，使用因果關係。 本研究選用三個版本的高中英文教科書來進行研究，之所以選擇此三版本教科書的原因在於，此三個版本在台灣高中英文課本的市占率最高。而又因為敘述文和說明文在學測和指考的英文作文考試中是最常要測驗學生的文體，因此本研究進一步挑選課本中的敘述文和說明文來進行分析與探討。此外，本研究亦研究民國100年到105年的學測、指考英文作文佳作，舉凡是敘述文和說明文中所使用的因果關係都進行分析與探討。 研究結果顯示在三個版本中，敘述文和說明文的分布無明顯差異。此外，本文發現年級越高的高中生會接觸到愈多的敘述文，但愈少的說明文。研究結果亦顯示文體會影響因果關係的使用情形。相較於敘述文中的因果關係使用，我們發現教科書作者在說明文中使用較多因果關係。 而我們也發現在不同文體中的不同文章結構，因果關係使用的情形不同。在敘述文中，因果關係主要被使用於Complications和Resolutions中。在說明文中，因果關係則主要被使用於Arguments supported by evidence 和Summing up the position中。除此之外，本文亦發現在四類因果連接詞中，Reason和Result這兩類的因果連接詞最常被使用於敘述文和說明文中。 為了清楚看出因果關係，本文針對包含因果關係的句子皆進行了句法、時間及邏輯順序的分析。結果發現幾乎所有因果關係中的時間順序皆與邏輯順序一致。同時，本文亦歸納出教科書中的因果關係的七種使用形式，並提供教科書中的例句來進行討論。 最後，透過學生英文作文佳作的分析，我們發現在因果關係的使用量方面，這群學生與教科書作者相似。而本研究亦歸納出學生在佳作中的四個因果關係誤用的問題。 希望本研究的發現及所提供的建議可供台灣高中英文科教師、教科書作者以及高中生參考。 / The purpose of the study is to investigate the variations of causal relations in narrations and expositions in Taiwan senior high school's English textbooks, and high performance students’compositions. Since causal relations are common in reading and writing, it is important for students to learn to use it. According to Lee (2003), causal relations are the most difficult logical relations for students to master. The present study wants to know how causal relations are introduced to learners in the narrations and expositions from textbooks. Besides, the present study also wants to know how students use causal relations in different genres of compositions. In the study, three series of textbooks are selected for the examination. These three textbooks were chosen as they are commonly used textbooks in Taiwan senior high schools. The selected texts for examination are the texts of two genres: narration and exposition, for these two genres are frequently tested in College Entrance Exams. Moreover, the causal relations in narrations and expositions among the high-scoring essays in years of 2011 to 2016College Entrance Exams were examined as well. The results showed that three series of textbooks in have no significant differences in the distributions of narrations and expositions. Besides, senior high school students expose more narrations but fewer expositions in the higher grades. Furthermore, the result revealed that genres do influence the uses of causal relations, for expositions in the textbooks applied more causal relations than the narrations in the textbooks. Moreover, different usages among different text organizations in both narrations and expositions were found. In the text organizations of narrations, causal relations were mainly used in complications and resolutions.In the text organizations of expositions, causal relations were mainly used in Arguments supported by evidence and Summing up the position. The types of causal relations which are frequently used in textbooks were also found as well. The results showed that Reason and Result type of causal logical connectors were mainly used in both narrations and expositions. Analyses of casual relations’sequences were conducted to clearly see the syntactic sequences, temporal sequences, and logical sequences of the sentences with causal relations. It was found that almost all the causal relations in the textbooks had the temporal sequences equaled to the logical sequences. Moreover, six usages of causal logical connectors were categorized and presented with example sentences. Last but not least, through the analyses of causal relations in students’high-scoring essays, the result showed that high performance students used the similar amounts of causal relations in their compositions with the textbooks’ writers. The present study also categorizes the errors of misusing the causal relations into four problems. It is hoped that this study can provide insights for the senior high school English teachers, textbook publishers, and students to follow.

本研究旨在探討台灣高中生副詞子句的使用，並且探究台灣高中生在副詞子句使用上所產生的錯誤。此外，為更進一步了解台灣高中生對於副詞子句的認知，本研究亦檢視了目前國內高中生普遍所使用的英語教科書，以了解英語副詞子句的呈現方式以及內容的編排。本研究受試者為兩班高二學生，一共43位。研究工具為學生高二上學期三篇指定英文作文寫作。 研究結果顯示，副詞子句為一高中生作文中常出現之句型結構。受試者能夠使用不同語意種類的副詞子句來補充說明主要子句的訊息。在各式不同種類副詞子句當中，時間副詞子句出現頻率最高。限定副詞子句(finite adverbial clauses)使用的頻率遠多於非限定副詞子句(non-finite adverbial clauses)。限定副詞子句使用當中，時間副詞子句、因果副詞子句、條件副詞子句、目的副詞子句以及讓步副詞子句，依序為最常使用的副詞子句；非限定副詞子句使用當中，目的副詞子句以及時間副詞子句為使用頻率最高的副詞子句。 雖然副詞子句是基本句型，但經錯誤分析的結果顯示，學生對於副詞子句沒有完整的了解，仍有不正確的使用。整體而言，句子不完整( sentence fragment)以及使用錯誤（不恰當）副詞連接詞使用(illogical subordinate conjunction)為最常發生的錯誤。在限定副詞子句使用上，最常犯的錯誤為不完整句子、錯誤或不恰當的副詞連接詞使用、重複連接詞標記(double marking)以及無主語(null subject)。在非限定副詞子句使用上，不連結修飾語(dangling modifier)為最常出現之錯誤。這些錯誤很可能是因為中文以及英文之間的差異以及對副詞子句沒有充分的理解所導致。 而教科書當中對副詞子句的介紹，也可以解釋學生學習使用副詞子句所犯的錯誤及遭遇的問題。從檢視教科書以及教師手冊當中的句型以及寫作兩個單元發現，在句型呈現上，副詞子句的介紹以及呈現主要著重在單句句型結構以及語意相近的句型結構替換。副詞子句的篇章功能以及副詞連接詞的使用則較被忽略。句型練習中，也較少有情境式的真實語言呈現。在寫作單元上，副詞子句也多半侷限於其句型結構上，而忽略了其詳細語用以及篇章功能概念。綜合研究結果，本研究提出較完善的教學建議，以幫助教學工作者以及學習者對副詞子句在教學上及學習上有更進一步的了解。 / The purpose of the present study is to investigate how adverbial clauses are used in Taiwanese senior high school students’ written production and what kinds of difficulties students encounter in employing the structure. In addition, to understand how Taiwanese EFL learners construct their knowledge of adverbial clauses, senior high school students’ English textbooks and teachers’ manuals are also examined to find out the presentation of adverbial clauses. Forty-three senior high school students from two different classes in their second year participated in the research. Three assigned compositions in one semester were collected for data analysis. The result showed that adverbial clauses are commonly utilized to express various types of circumstantial meanings in the learners’ writing. Temporal adverbial clauses are of the most use among different kinds of adverbial clauses. Adverbial clauses are further categorized into two types: finite and non-finite adverbial clauses. The use of finite adverbial clauses is far more frequent than the use of non-finite adverbial clauses. This may attribute to the amount of exposure to the finite adverbial clauses and syntactic complexities of non-finite clauses. In finite clauses, temporal adverbial clauses are the most frequently used, followed by causal, conditional, purpose and concessive adverbial clauses respectively. In non-finite adverbial clauses, adverbial clauses of purpose are the most used, then clauses of time. To identify Taiwanese senior high school students’ difficulties in using adverbial clauses, an error analysis was conducted. It was found that adverbial clauses are problematic to the learners. Overall, sentence fragment and illogical subordinate conjunction are the two main error types. Most of the errors occur in finite clauses, including sentence fragment, illogical subordinate conjunction, double marking and null subject. In non-finite clauses, error type is exclusively dangling modifier. The reasons for the errors may be due to learners’ incomprehensive understanding toward the use of adverbial clauses and the differences between Chinese and English. In addition, learners’ textbooks were evaluated to see how adverbial clauses were generally introduced and presented. An examination of grammar (sentence patterns) and writing sections revealed that in grammar section, the emphasis is mainly on the introduction of various linguistic forms of adverbial clauses and syntactic structures that bear similar semantic meanings. Moreover, they are presented mostly in isolation without meaningful and contextual presentations. The functional aspect of adverbial clauses and the contextual presentation of subordinate conjunctions are quite neglected. Likewise, in writing section, the focus is mostly limited to the introduction of various types of adverbial clauses and subordinate conjunctions. Clearer explanations of the conjunctions and the functional role of adverbial clauses in writing are relatively overlooked. Concluding from the previous findings, it is suggested that more explicit and contextual presentations are needed to help learners to develop a more complete understanding of the use of adverbial clauses.