Ce travail de thèse se compose de deux parties : tout d’abord nous avons caractérisé sur le plan morphologique des motifs de TiOx réalisés par anodisation localisée par AFM (LAO) dans des couches pleines plaques de 5 nm de titane. Nous avons étudié l’influence de la tension d’oxydation, de la vitesse de balayage de la pointe AFM, de l’humidité relative de l’environnement, du mode AFM (contact ou intermittent) et du type de pointe. Les motifs les plus fins atteignent une largeur à mi-hauteur de 21 nm pour 2.2 nm de hauteur, ils sont obtenus avec une pointe PtSi utilisée en mode intermittent sous une tension de polarisation de -7V, une vitesse de balayage de 0.4 µm.s-1 et dans un environnement comportant une humidité de 43%. La deuxième partie de notre travail a été consacrée à l’élaboration et à la caractérisation de jonctions planaires MIM Ti/TiOx/Ti. Ces jonctions sont des motifs TLM de titane comportant une ligne transverse de TiOx réalisée par LAO. Lorsque les jonctions sont stressées électriquement sous air, une transformation morphologique irréversible se produit pour une densité de courant et un champ électrique atteignant de l’ordre de 7.1010 A.m-2 et 3.107 V.m-1 respectivement. Des analyses chimiques et structurales basées sur la microscopie électronique à transmission ont montré que la ligne initiale de TiOx amorphe s’était considérablement élargie et est constituée d’une zone de TiOx cristallin. Cette transformation peut être évitée en appliquant le stress électrique sous vide. Enfin des mesures électriques en température ont permis d’élucider les mécanismes de conduction : émission Schottky sous vide et conduction ionique sous air. / This work is divided in two specific parts: first of all we caracterized oxide patterns made by local anodic oxidation using an AFM on 5nm titanium wafers. We caracterized the morphology of the patterns. We studied the influence of several parameters such as oxidation voltage, writing speed of the AFM tip, relative humidity of the environment, AFM modes (contact or tapping)and the type of the tips we used. Most thinnest pattern we made reaches a full width at half maximum of 21nm with a 2.2nm height. It was obtained using a PtSi coating tip in tapping mode with an oxidation voltage of -7V, a writing speed of 0.4 um/s and a relative humidity of 43%. The second part of our work was dedicated to the realization and the characterization of planar MIM junction Ti/TiOx/Ti. These junctions are TLM patterns with a TiOx line cross-ways over the microwire of the TLM pattern. When the junctions are stressed electrically under ambient atmosphere, an irreversible morphological transformation is happenning for a current density and an electric field of 7.1010 A/m² and 3.107 V/m respectively. Chemical and structural analysis based on transmission electronic microscopy have shown that the initial amorphous TiOx junction have grown importantly with an area of crystalline TiOx. This transformation can be avoided by applying the electric stress under vacuum. Finally, electrical measurements in temperature highlighted the transport mecanisms within the junction: Schottky emission under vacuum and ionic conduction under ambient atmosphere.

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), where both strands of the DNA duplex are simultaneously fractured, are considered the most lethal type of DNA damage. The conserved Mre11-Rad50 DNA repair complex enables the catalytic activities of the Mre11 nuclease and the Rad50 ATPase to function together to coordinate the recognition and processing of DSBs prior to the recruitment of long-range end-resection machinery required to trigger the DSB repair by the homologous recombination (HR) pathway. Fast-scan atomic force microscopy (AFM) in fluid conditions was primarily used to explore the architectural arrangement, DNA binding and processing machinery of the Mre11-Rad50 complex from the thermophilic crenarchaeote Sulfolobus acidocaldarius. The structural analysis identified four distinct architectural arrangements and demonstrates the key role of the Rad50 zinc hooks in the oligomerisation of the complex. AFM imaging showed a dynamic and Velcro-like interplay between Mre11-Rad50 protein complexes and the DNA double-helix using the Rad50 coiled-coils in a novel mode of DNA binding. The complex appears to use the Rad50 zinc hook region to bind to and track along dsDNA for broken DNA-terminals. Furthermore, the present study shows that this archaeal complex can drive extensive ATP-dependent unwinding of DNA templates. It is the first time that such unwinding has been observed in a single molecule study. These observations reveal novel activities leading to the proposal of a new model for Mre11-Rad50 action during DSB repair. AFM was also used to visualise the structure and activity of the HerA-NurA protein complex, which has been predicted to combine the activity of the NurA nuclease and hexameric HerA-translocase to generate long single-stranded DNA overhangs essential for DSB repair by HR in archaea. The present data verify and clarify the presumed biological role of this complex. Overall, the present study provides new insights into the initial steps of DNA DSB repair by the HR pathway and, most importantly, the detection of the broken ends.

Os eletrodos de filme de SnO2 suportado sobre sílica ou titânio apresentam propriedades eletroquímicas e morfológico-estruturais bastante distintas e são empregados em diferentes aplicações. Estes dois tipos de materiais foram preparados e investigaram-se suas propriedades através de diversas técnicas eletroquímicas e de análise de superfície. Os eletrodos de Ti/SnO2(Sb) apresentaram a superfície porosa e rugosidade de 500 nm. Para os filmes finos (~40 nm) depositados sobre sílica, porém, observou-se alta transparência, superfície uniforme e rugosidade de 1 nm. Mesmo entre os eletrodos transparentes, dependendo do dopante (Cl, F ou Sb), verificaram-se diferenças quanto às orientações cristalográficas predominantes, espessura, resistividade e tamanho das partículas. As investigações eletroquímicas também revelaram diferenças consideráveis entre ambos os tipos de eletrodos. Para as reações de óxido-redução do K4Fe(CN)6, p.ex., a transferência de elétrons foi muito mais rápida sobre o eletrodo de Ti/Sn)2(Sb), possivelmente porque este eletrodo apresentava maior número de portadores de carga e menor resistência ôhmica que os eletrodos transparentes. Investigou-se ainda o comportamento eletroquímico de eletrodos modificados com um filme de octadeciltriclorosilano (OTS). Os estudos revelaram que a presença do OTS não alterou o mecanismo para a reação de geração de oxigênio, porém, alterou significativamente o comportamento do eletrodo de Ti/SnO2(Sb) na eletro-oxidação do metanol. Aparentemente, o OTS induziu a formação de espécies poliméricas que bloquearam o eletrodo, indicando, portanto, que estes eletrodos modificados não são indicados para atuar como ânodos na eletro-oxidação de compostos orgânicos. Os processos de corrosão induzidos por polarização anódica ou catódica foram investigados por microscopia de forças atômicas e de efeito túnel para os eletrodos transparentes modificados ou não com OTS. As análises revelaram que os processos de corrosão iniciaram-se nos contornos dos grãos e atuaram de maneira diferenciada sobre as partículas que constituem o filme. A corrosão foi muito menos pronunciada para os eletrodos modificados com OTS, indicando que este organosilano poderia proteger a superficie do SnO2. Porém, a aplicabilidade do eletrodo Ti/SnO2(Sb)-OTS seria muito limitada, considerando que o OTS poderia promover a polimerização de espécies orgânicas na superficie do eletrodo. / The electrochemical and morphological properties of tin oxide electrodes deposited on silica or titanium substrates were investigated by electrochemical and surface analysis techniques. The Sb doped SnO2 film deposited on Ti was prepared by thermal decomposition of stannic chloride solution and investigated by SEM and interferometric microscopy. This Ti/SnO2(Sb) exhibited a porous surface, with a rms roughness of 500 run. The transparent film of SnO2 doped with Cl, F or Sb, which was deposited on silica by Spray Pyrolysis, were analyzed by XPS, XRD, SEM, AFM and STM techniques. These films were polycrystalline and had an uniform and smooth surface with a rms roughness ranging from 1 to 2 nm. Their microstructure was constituted of coalesced particles with an average diameter and height of 30 nm and 6 nm, respectively. Thickness, conductivity, grain size, and surface composition of transparent films depended on the dopant. The electrochemical behavior of both types of SnO2 electrodes were investigated by Cyclic Voltammetry and Electrochemical lmpedance Spectroscopy (EIS). For the reversibility of K4Fe(CN)O6 redox reaction, while the Ti/SnO2(Sb) electrode supported high rate for electron transfer, the transparent electrodes exhibited a poor electrochemical response, which was attributed to the high ohmic resistance. The effect of electrochemical perturbation in 0.1 M NaClO4, pH 2, on the microstructure oftransparent electrodes was investigated by in-situ STM and ex-situ AFM, SEM and other techniques. Anodic polarization at potentials near the OER region and potential cycling induces little alterations on the microstructure of the electrode, observable only in sub-micron range by AFM analysis. Cathodic polarization at potentials in the region of the HER, however, strongly damages the filmo AFM and STM examination revealed that the grain boundaries are attacked, and both vertical and lateral dimensions of the particles decrease. From the observations, it can be inferred that SnO is formed during the cathodic polarization and, destruction of the film occurs by dissolution of that more soluble oxide. In-situ STM experiments showed that, at the initial stages, the particles of the damaged film can acquire dimensions even larger than the initial size by anodic polarization. Finally, it can be concluded that a smooth and compact film, with little defects is less susceptible to corrosion.

Over the past three decades in cellular neuroscience there has been a shift towards the view of the 'tripartite synapse', where, astrocytes -- as well as the pre-synapse and post-synapse -- are involved in synaptic signalling. The migration of astrocytes to form branched networks in the brain is, therefore, of great interest in understanding brain development and neuronal function. Migration is a complex interplay between cytoskeletal reorganisation and cell mechanical stiffness. In order to improve understanding of this process, correlative measurements of cytoskeletal organisation and mechanical stiffness are required. To investigate astrocyte migration a technique combining atomic force microscopy (AFM) with stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy was developed. First a custom STED microscope was developed. To facilitate the design of this system the theoretical performance of a range of STED techniques (cw-STED, time-gated STED, pulsed STED and RESOLFT) were compared, identifying that pulsed STED theoretically has the highest photon efficiency. A pulsed STED microscope, which uses adaptive optics, was then designed, developed and characterised. The microscope was found to achieve resolutions below 50 nm. The STED microscope was combined with a commercial AFM to study live cells. Using the recently developed SiR-actin and SiR-tubulin dyes and AFM probes optimised for live cell mechanical property studies, images of the actin and tubulin cytoskeleton were correlated with AFM topography and mechanical stiffness measurements. It was found that, in astrocytes, actin contributes significantly both to astrocyte stiffness and topography. Investigations of migrating cells showed differences in actin organisation and mechanical stiffness between the basis and leading edge of migration. A further study was performed, investigating the effects of the gap-junction protein connexin30, which is expressed during the early stages of brain development, on migration. This protein was found to inhibit the actin reorganisation and mechanical stiffness changes observed in basal conditions. Overall the combination of mechanosensitive AFM measurements with advanced microscopy, such as super-resolution, on live cells is a promising approach which will enable a range of investigations, for instance when studying cell structural remodeling during brain development or tumorigenesis.

Os eletrodos de filme de SnO2 suportado sobre sílica ou titânio apresentam propriedades eletroquímicas e morfológico-estruturais bastante distintas e são empregados em diferentes aplicações. Estes dois tipos de materiais foram preparados e investigaram-se suas propriedades através de diversas técnicas eletroquímicas e de análise de superfície. Os eletrodos de Ti/SnO2(Sb) apresentaram a superfície porosa e rugosidade de 500 nm. Para os filmes finos (~40 nm) depositados sobre sílica, porém, observou-se alta transparência, superfície uniforme e rugosidade de 1 nm. Mesmo entre os eletrodos transparentes, dependendo do dopante (Cl, F ou Sb), verificaram-se diferenças quanto às orientações cristalográficas predominantes, espessura, resistividade e tamanho das partículas. As investigações eletroquímicas também revelaram diferenças consideráveis entre ambos os tipos de eletrodos. Para as reações de óxido-redução do K4Fe(CN)6, p.ex., a transferência de elétrons foi muito mais rápida sobre o eletrodo de Ti/Sn)2(Sb), possivelmente porque este eletrodo apresentava maior número de portadores de carga e menor resistência ôhmica que os eletrodos transparentes. Investigou-se ainda o comportamento eletroquímico de eletrodos modificados com um filme de octadeciltriclorosilano (OTS). Os estudos revelaram que a presença do OTS não alterou o mecanismo para a reação de geração de oxigênio, porém, alterou significativamente o comportamento do eletrodo de Ti/SnO2(Sb) na eletro-oxidação do metanol. Aparentemente, o OTS induziu a formação de espécies poliméricas que bloquearam o eletrodo, indicando, portanto, que estes eletrodos modificados não são indicados para atuar como ânodos na eletro-oxidação de compostos orgânicos. Os processos de corrosão induzidos por polarização anódica ou catódica foram investigados por microscopia de forças atômicas e de efeito túnel para os eletrodos transparentes modificados ou não com OTS. As análises revelaram que os processos de corrosão iniciaram-se nos contornos dos grãos e atuaram de maneira diferenciada sobre as partículas que constituem o filme. A corrosão foi muito menos pronunciada para os eletrodos modificados com OTS, indicando que este organosilano poderia proteger a superficie do SnO2. Porém, a aplicabilidade do eletrodo Ti/SnO2(Sb)-OTS seria muito limitada, considerando que o OTS poderia promover a polimerização de espécies orgânicas na superficie do eletrodo. / The electrochemical and morphological properties of tin oxide electrodes deposited on silica or titanium substrates were investigated by electrochemical and surface analysis techniques. The Sb doped SnO2 film deposited on Ti was prepared by thermal decomposition of stannic chloride solution and investigated by SEM and interferometric microscopy. This Ti/SnO2(Sb) exhibited a porous surface, with a rms roughness of 500 run. The transparent film of SnO2 doped with Cl, F or Sb, which was deposited on silica by Spray Pyrolysis, were analyzed by XPS, XRD, SEM, AFM and STM techniques. These films were polycrystalline and had an uniform and smooth surface with a rms roughness ranging from 1 to 2 nm. Their microstructure was constituted of coalesced particles with an average diameter and height of 30 nm and 6 nm, respectively. Thickness, conductivity, grain size, and surface composition of transparent films depended on the dopant. The electrochemical behavior of both types of SnO2 electrodes were investigated by Cyclic Voltammetry and Electrochemical lmpedance Spectroscopy (EIS). For the reversibility of K4Fe(CN)O6 redox reaction, while the Ti/SnO2(Sb) electrode supported high rate for electron transfer, the transparent electrodes exhibited a poor electrochemical response, which was attributed to the high ohmic resistance. The effect of electrochemical perturbation in 0.1 M NaClO4, pH 2, on the microstructure oftransparent electrodes was investigated by in-situ STM and ex-situ AFM, SEM and other techniques. Anodic polarization at potentials near the OER region and potential cycling induces little alterations on the microstructure of the electrode, observable only in sub-micron range by AFM analysis. Cathodic polarization at potentials in the region of the HER, however, strongly damages the filmo AFM and STM examination revealed that the grain boundaries are attacked, and both vertical and lateral dimensions of the particles decrease. From the observations, it can be inferred that SnO is formed during the cathodic polarization and, destruction of the film occurs by dissolution of that more soluble oxide. In-situ STM experiments showed that, at the initial stages, the particles of the damaged film can acquire dimensions even larger than the initial size by anodic polarization. Finally, it can be concluded that a smooth and compact film, with little defects is less susceptible to corrosion.

Ce travail de thèse a pour but de montrer comment des caractérisations nanomécaniques en AFM peuvent apporter une meilleure compréhension des relations structure-propriétés dans les polymères. Dans ce contexte, la technique elle-même et sa base théorique sont d'abord analysées pour mettre en œuvre une méthodologie robuste afin d'effectuer des mesures reproductibles. Deux études principales sont menées sur un thème commun : la compréhension des interactions entre les biopolymères et les liquides ioniques (ILs). Tout d'abord, la compatibilisation des mélanges PBAT/PLA par deux ILs différents (à savoir il-Cl et il-TMP) est étudiée. Les images AFM d'adhésion et de module local mettent en évidence les différentes microstructures, et soulignent que la compatibilisation résulte principalement d'une modification de l'interface PBAT/PLA, devenant une interphase cohésive. Ceci est dû à une interaction spécifique avec les cations et les anions de chaque liquide ionique, qui se situent préférentiellement au niveau de ces interphases. La deuxième étude porte plus précisément sur la modification du PBAT semi-cristallin par de petites quantités des mêmes liquides ioniques. Alors que il-TMP forme des nodules dissipatifs dispersés dans la matrice et une interphase cohésive avec celle-ci, il-Cl, miscible dans la phase amorphe du PBAT, augmente la mobilité de la chaîne dans la MAF (i.e. fraction amorphe mobile) et l'entrave dans la RAF confinée (i.e. fraction amorphe rigide), conduisant à des modifications intéressantes des propriétés macroscopiques. En plus de montrer certaines capacités intéressantes des ILs comme additifs dans les polymères, ces résultats dévoilent également un potentiel exceptionnel des caractérisations nanomécaniques en AFM pour la compréhension en profondeur des relations structure-propriétés dans les matériaux. / This thesis work aims to show how nanomechanical characterizations in AFM can provide a better understanding of structure-properties relationships in polymers. In this context, the technique itself and the associated theoretical basis are first analyzed to implement a robust methodology in order to perform reproducible, quantitative measurements. Two main studies are carried out around a common topic: the understanding of the interactions between biopolymers and ionic liquids (ILs). First, the compatibilization of PBAT/PLA blends by two different ILs (namely il-Cl and il-TMP) is studied. Adhesion and local modulus mappings evidence the resulting microstructures, and highlight that the compatibilization mainly results from a modification of the PBAT/PLA interface, becoming a coherent interphase. This is due to specific interaction with the cations and the anions of each IL, which are preferentially located at those interphases. The second study is more specifically about the understanding of the modification of semicrystalline PBAT by the addition of small amounts of the same ionic liquids. While il-TMP forms dissipative nodules dispersed into the matrix with a cohesive interphase between both, il-Cl, miscible into the amorphous phase of PBAT, amplifies the chain mobility in the bulky MAF (i.e. Mobile Amorphous Fraction) and hinders it in the confined RAF (i.e. Rigid Amorphous Fraction), leading to interesting macroscopical properties modifications. More than showing some interesting capabilities of ILs as additives in polymers, those results also show an outstanding potential of AFM nanomechanical mappings for the in-deep understanding of structure-properties relationships in materials.

La miniaturisation de la structure de transistor MOS a conduit à l'amincissement de l’oxyde de grille. Ainsi, la dégradation et le claquage sous contrainte électrique est devenu l'un des problèmes de fiabilité les plus importants des couches minces d'oxydes. L'utilisation de techniques de caractérisation permettant de mesurer les courants de fuite avec une résolution spatiale nanométrique a montré que le phénomène de claquage des oxydes est un phénomène très localisé. Le diamètre des «points chauds», des endroits où le courant de fuite est très élevé pour une tension appliquée continue, peut-être de quelques nanomètres uniquement. Ceci illustre pourquoi les méthodes de caractérisation avec une résolution spatiale à l’échelle nanométrique peuvent fournir des informations supplémentaires par rapport à la caractérisation classique macroscopique. Il y a deux instruments, dérivés de la microscopie à force atomique (AFM) qui peuvent être utilisés pour faire ce travail, soit le Tunneling Atomic Force Microscope (TUNA) ou le Conductive Atomic Force Microscope (C-AFM). Le mode TUNA qui est utilisé dans notre travail est capable de mesurer des courants très faibles variant entre 60 fA et 100 pA. Notre travail peut être divisé en deux thèmes principaux: - La caractérisation électrique des couches minces d'oxydes high-k (LaAlO3 et Gd2O3) à l'échelle nanométrique en utilisant le Dimension Veeco 3100 où nous avons montré que la différence de leurs techniques d'élaboration influe largement sur le comportement électrique de ces oxydes. - Les caractérisations électriques et physiques à l’échelle nanométrique des couches minces d’oxydes thermiques SiO2 sous différentes atmosphères, c.à.d. dans l'air et sous vide (≈ 10-6 mbar) en utilisant le microscope Veeco E-Scope. L'influence de l’atmosphère a été bien étudiée, où nous avons montré que les phénomènes de claquage des couches minces d'oxydes peuvent être fortement réduits sous vide surtout en l'absence du ménisque d'eau sur la surface de l'oxyde pendant les expériences. En utilisant les plusieurs modes de l'AFM, il a été démontré que l'existence de bosses anormales (hillocks) sur la surface de l'oxyde après l'application d'une tension électrique est une combinaison de deux phénomènes: la modification morphologique réelle de la surface de l'oxyde et la force électrostatique entre les charges piégées dans le volume de l'oxyde et la pointe de l'AFM. Selon les images du courant obtenues par AFM en mode TUNA, deux phénomènes physiques pour la création de ces hillocks ont été proposés: le premier est l'effet électro-thermique et la seconde est l'oxydation du substrat Si à l’interface Si/oxyde. / Miniaturization of the MOS transistor structure has led to the high thinning of the gate oxide. Hence, degradation and breakdown under electrical stress became one of the important reliability concerns of thin oxide films. The use of characterization techniques allowing to measure leakage currents with a nanometric spatial resolution has shown that breakdown phenomenon of oxides is a highly localized phenomenon. So called “hot spots”, places where the leakage current is very high for a given applied continuous voltage, can be several nanometers wide only. This illustrates why nanometric characterization methods with a nanometer range spatial resolution provide additional information compared to the classical macroscopic characterization. There are two instruments that can be used to do this job, either the Tunneling Atomic Force Microscope (TUNA) or the Conductive Atomic Force Microscope (C-AFM). TUNA which is used in our work is capable to measure very low currents ranging between 60 fA and 100 pA. Our work can be divided into two principle topics: - Electrical characterization of thin high-k oxides (LaAlO3 and Gd2O3) at the nano-scale using the Veeco Dimension 3100 where we have shown that the difference in their elaboration techniques largely influence the electrical behavior of these oxides. - Nano-scale electrical and physical characterization of thin SiO2 thermal oxides in different surrounding ambient, that is in air and under vacuum (≈ 10-6 mbar) using the Veeco E-scope microscope. The influence of the experiment surrounding ambient has been well studied where we have shown that the breakdown phenomena of thin oxide films can be highly reduced under vacuum especially in the absence of the water meniscus on the oxide’s surface under study. Using different AFM modes, it was demonstrated that the existence of the well-known hillock (protrusions) on the oxide’s surface after the application of an electrical stress is a combination of two phenomena: the real morphological modification of the oxide’s surface and the electrostatic force between the trapped charges in the oxide’s volume and the AFM tip. Depending on the current images obtained by TUNA AFM mode, two physical phenomena for the creation of these hillocks have been proposed: the first is the electro-thermal effect and the second is the oxidation of the Si substrate at the Si/oxide interface.

Buňka tvoří složitý biologický systém vystavený mnoha mimobuněčným mechanickým podnětům. Hlubší pochopení jejího mechanického chování je důležité pro charakterizaci její odezvy v podmínkách zdraví i nemoci. Výpočtové modelování může rozšířit pochopení mechaniky buňky, která může přispívat k vytvoření vztahů mezi strukturou a funkcí různých typů buněk v různých stavech. Za tímto účelem byly pomocí metody konečných prvků (MKP) vytvořeny dva bendotensegritní modely buňky v různých stavech: model vznášející se buňky pro analýzu její globální mechanické odezvy, jako je protažení nebo stlačení, a model buňky přilnuté k podložce, který vysvětluje odezvu buňky na lokální mechanické zatížení, jako třeba vtlačování hrotu při mikroskopii atomárních sil (AFM). Oba zachovávají základní principy tensegritních struktur jako je jejich předpětí a vzájemné ovlivnění mezi komponentami, ale prvky se mohou nezávisle pohybovat. Zahrnutí nedávno navržené bendotensegritní koncepce umožňuje těmto modelům brát v úvahu jak tahové, tak i ohybové namáhání mikrotubulů (MTs) a také zahrnout vlnitost intermediálních filament (IFs). Modely předpokládají, že jednotlivé složky cytoskeletu mohou měnit svůj tvar a uspořádání, aniž by při jejich odstranění došlo ke kolapsu celé buněčné struktury, a tak umožňují hodnotit mechanický příspěvek jednotlivých složek cytoskeletu k mechanice buňky. Model vznášející se buňky napodobuje realisticky odezvu síla-deformace během protahování a stlačování buňky a obě odezvy ilustrují nelineární nárůst tuhosti s růstem mechanického zatížení. Výsledky simulací ukazují, že aktinová filamenta i mikrotubuly hrají klíčovou úlohu při určování tahové odezvy buňky, zatímco k její tlakové odezvě přispívají podstatně jen aktinová filamenta. Model buňky přilnuté k podložce dává odezvu síla-hloubka vtlačení ve dvou různých místech odpovídající nelineární odezvě zjištěné experimentálně při AFM. Výsledky simulací ukazují, že pro chování buňky je rozhodující místo vtlačení a její tuhost určují aktinová povrchová vrstva, mikrotubuly a cytoplazma. Navržené modely umožňují cenný vhled do vzájemných souvislostí mechanických vlastností buněk, do mechanické úlohy komponent cytoskeletu jak individuálně, tak i ve vzájemné synergii a do deformace jádra buňky za různých podmínek mechanického zatížení. Tudíž tato práce přispívá k lepšímu pochopení mechaniky cytoskeletu zodpovědné za chování buňky, což naopak může napomáhat ve zkoumání různých patologických podmínek jako je rakovina a cévní choroby.

Les matériaux ferroélectriques sont caractérisés par l'existence d'une polarisation électrique spontanée, dont l'orientation peut être inversée par l'application d'un champ électrique adéquat. Permettant de coder l'information sous la forme d'un domaine ferroélectrique, i.e. une région du matériau avec une certaine orientation de la polarisation, les ferroélectriques ouvrent la voie au stockage de masse de très haute densité (>10 Tbit/in ²). Dans ce contexte, nous avons employé la Piezoresponse Force Microscopy (PFM), un mode particulier de Microscope à Force Atomique (AFM), permettant la manipulation et la détection des domaines ferroélectriques à l'échelle du nanomètre. Avec pour objectif d'étudier les mécanismes de formation des domaines par l'intermédiaire d'une pointe AFM, nos travaux ont mis en valeur la cinétique de croissance des domaines dans des films minces monocristallins de LiTaO3, avec une approche complémentaire de celle thermodynamique, dépendante du champ électrique et soulignant le rôle de l'humidité dans une possible conduction de surface. En parallèle, les films de LiTaO3 ont permis d'appréhender davantage la nature électro-mécanique de la réponse PFM, pour notamment relier l'amplitude du signal mesuré à la géométrie du domaine sous pointe. PFM et domaines ferroélectriques se sont en effet révélés tour à tour, objet d'étude et outil de caractérisation. / Ferroelectric materials are characterized by their spontaneous polarization, whose direction can be reversed by the application of a suitable electric field. Using domains, i.e. regions of uniform polarization orientation, as information bits, ferroelectrics opens the pathway towards ultrahigh storage densities (>10 Tbit/in²). In this respect, Piezoresponse Force Microscopy (PFM), a technique derived from Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), was used to manipulate and detect ferroelectric domains on the nanometer scale. Our study was focused on the domains formation mechanism in the local electric field of a nanosized tip. Within an approach complementary to the thermodynamic one, we underlined the kinetics of domains growth in single-crystal LiTaO3 thin films, and the role of humidity in a possible surface conduction. In parallel, the LiTaO3 thin films were used to better understand the PFM response, in particular the relation between the measured signal and the geometry of the domain below the tip. This way, PFM and ferroelectrics domains alternately appeared as object of study and characterization tool.

La génération de surfaces présentant des nanostructurations de surface variées et modulables est l’objectif principal de ce travail. L’auto-assemblage de copolymères à bloc ou de nanoparticules d’or a été privilégié, et nécessite pour se faire de moduler finement les interactions aux interfaces substrat/ matériaux déposés. Dans une première partie, un dispositif expérimental de greffage de silane alkyle en voie vapeur est décrit. Cette technique de greffage permet d’aboutir à des surfaces fonctionnalisées soit de façon homogène, soit de façon graduelle et ce, avec un ou deux silanes (substrat respectivement mono ou bi-composant). La robustesse, la simplicité et la flexibilité de notre procédé ont été démontrés par des caractérisations physico-chimique (mesure des propriétés de mouillabilité), chimique (spectroscopie de photoélectrons X) ainsi que par analyse topographique (microscopie à force atomique). Dans une deuxième partie, l’influence des interactions aux interfaces substrat / film sur l’auto-assemblage de copolymères à bloc PS-b-PMMA a été mise en évidence par AFM. A partir des substrats de silicium homogènes en énergie de surface, il a été possible de moduler la nanostructuration sur différents échantillons et à partir des surfaces fonctionnalisées graduellement, cette variation de nanostructuration a pu être obtenue sur un même substrat. Par l’utilisation de copolymère à bloc PS-b-PI, il est par ailleurs possible de générer des films nanostructurés sans préfonctionnalisation du substrat, sans recuit et ce quelle que soit l’épaisseur du film. Dans une troisième partie, l’influence des interactions aux interfaces sur l’assemblage capillaire/convectif dirigé de nanoparticules d’or a été démontré par microscopie à champ sombre. La nature chimique et la densité de greffage des silanes ainsi que la dimension des échantillons ont été modulées pour mettre en évidence le rôle de ces paramètres sur l’assemblage de ces particules. Cette étude montre que les interactions aux interfaces contrôlent l’assemblage des entités chimiques organiques et inorganiques et donc la nanostructuration de surface qui en résulte. / The purpose of this work is to develop a methodology based on the control of interactions at substrate/deposited material interfaces in order to achieve well-defined structures at the nanoscale (nanostructuration). In particular, silane molecules were grafted onto planar substrates to adjust the physico-chemical interactions in order to consequently control block copolymers / gold nanoparticles self-assemblies. The first part describes the experimental set-up developed to graft alkyl silanes through vapor phase strategy. The modification can be finely tuned such that homogeneously or gradually functionalized surfaces with either one or two silanes (or- or two-component substrate, respectively) are obtained. The versatility and simplicity of our process were demonstrated by wettability measurements, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and microscopic analysis (AFM) performed on these different surfaces. The second part points out the influence of grafting density and polarity on block copolymers self-assembly. PS-b-PMMA films were first used. With using homogeneously-modified substrates, it has been demonstrated that block copolymers self-assembly depends on substrate surface chemistry, and different cases (dewetting, wetting, parallel or perpendicular orientation of nanodomains) were achieved as a function of the grafting density of silanes on the substrate. Using gradually-modified surface, these different nanostructures were obtained on one unique sample. Moreover, by using appropriate deposition conditions with another block copolymer (PS-b-PI), well-oriented nanostructured films were obtained without pre-functionalization or annealing, regardless of film thickness. In the third part influence of surface chemistry on gold nanoparticles deposited through capillary/convective assembly is investigated and characterized by dark field microscopy. The careful selection of silane in conjunction with appropriate grafting density are adjusted in order to emphasize the impact of these parameters on the assembly process and therefore on the surface nanostructures. This study demonstrates that the control of interfacial interactions dictates the self-assembly of organic or inorganic materials deposited on a planar substrate.